Port(French port, from Latin portus - harbor, pier) is a water transport point equipped with structures and devices necessary for loading and unloading operations, serving passengers, ensuring the safe parking of ships and their maintenance.

As a transport point, the port provides connections between several modes of transport - water, rail, and road. At the port, operations are carried out to transfer cargo from land modes of transport to water transport and vice versa.

To ensure the performance of its functions, the port must have a water area (water part), territory (shore part) and a berth front.

Water area A port is a water area necessary for the construction of roadsteads intended for the safe parking of ships awaiting processing, and for the convenient movement of ships to berths, refueling and repair points.

The water area usually includes water approaches to the port, roadsteads and internal pools. Water approaches can be natural (in the form of a section of sea or river) or artificial (with the construction of approach channels connecting the port with natural depths). Roadsteads are areas of water protected from strong waves where ships can anchor while awaiting permission to approach berths or leave the port. In the absence of deep-water berths in the port, transshipment operations are also carried out in roadsteads, for which auxiliary shallow-draft vessels are used - lighters and barges. Internal pools (sometimes called harbors or port pools), adjacent directly to the port area, are intended for the berthing of ships at berths; They carry out basic and some auxiliary cargo operations.

If necessary, the port water area is fenced with special hydraulic structures to protect it from rough water, currents and sediment. The ship's passage in the water area must be furnished with signs of the ship's situation and have a depth sufficient for the movement of design vessels. Sometimes special pools are built within the water area (for example, at ship repair yards and ship-lifting facilities).

The area of ​​the port water area must be sufficient for maneuvering ships entering and leaving the port, convenient for anchorage in the roadstead and safe for anchorage of vessels at berths, as well as for local maneuvering of vessels when approaching and departing from berths. Usually this area is determined by constructing possible lines of movement of ships to each berth with the required turning radius of the design vessel.

Territory ports – areas of land adjacent to the water area on which port facilities and devices are located that ensure the performance of the main function of the port - cargo transhipment, passenger service, servicing of ships and their crews.

Mooring front – a section of the coastline equipped with appropriate devices and equipment for the safe anchorage of ships and the performance of reloading operations.

Mooring lines can be located frontally (along the shore), along jetties, on piers protruding into the water area, as well as along internal coastal basins. The placement of berths should ensure, on the one hand, the convenience of approaching and mooring ships, and on the other, the possibility of servicing the berths by rail and road transport.

Operational sites, storage facilities and access roads are located on the port territory and at the berthing front. In addition, buildings for passenger services (marine terminal, river terminal), electrical substations, repair shops, garages, logistics facilities, administrative and service premises can be located on the port territory. Sometimes ship repair facilities, marshalling railway stations and wagon depots are located on or near the port territory.

The dimensions of the port territory are determined from the conditions of convenient placement of port facilities, equipment, access roads and intra-port railways and roads.

The main technical characteristics of the port: depth at the berth, length of the berth line and elevation of the port territory. The depth at the berth is measured from the lowest navigable water level and is determined by the calculated drafts of the vessels and the depth reserve under the keel of the vessel. In modern sea ​​ports the depth at the berths for dry cargo vessels is 10–15 m, for oil tankers – 15–20 m. The length of the berth line determines the number of vessels that can simultaneously stand at the berths and be processed. The number of berths is set separately for each category of cargo. In addition to the berths necessary for carrying out cargo and passenger operations, the ports also provide auxiliary berths serving bunkering, parking of service and auxiliary fleet and ship repair. The elevation of the port area (elevation above the water level) is selected in such a way that the port area does not flood when the level is high and the most favorable conditions are created for cargo and other operations. The elevation of the cordon part of the port territory is, as a rule, constant, which facilitates the movement of railway transport.

To ensure the operation of the port, hydraulic structures are installed in it. The main port hydraulic structures are:

mooring structures;

fencing structures;

bank protection structures;

ship repair facilities;

navigation structures.

Mooring facilities must ensure convenient and safe parking of ships during loading and unloading operations. There are two main types of berth structures: floating and coastal (embankments).

Quay embankments in cross section can have different shapes (Fig.):

vertical;

slope;

semi-slope;

semi-vertical.

Transverse profiles of the coastal quay line:

a – vertical; b – slope; c – semi-slope; g – semi-vertical

Vertical ones are most convenient for mooring and parking ships. However, with a large depth of water area and a large amplitude of water level fluctuations, it is necessary to build an embankment of great height, and this is quite expensive.

Vertical quays:

a – from solid masonry; b – from giant massifs; c – pile with sheet piling wall and anchors; d – pile with sheet piling wall and inclined piles

1 – stone bed; 2 – concrete masses; 3 – mooring-fender frame; 4 – giant reinforced concrete mass; 5 – sheet piles; 6 – anchor rod; 7 – anchor plate; 8 – wooden piles; 9 – reinforced concrete grillage; 10 – soil backfill

Sloping embankments are the cheapest, but they are less convenient for mooring and parking, and for loading onto ships located at such embankments, cranes with a long reach are needed. For the convenience of parking and mooring ships at such embankments, intermediate floating berths in the form of metal pontoons are often used.

Semi-slope and semi-vertical embankments are intermediate in operating conditions compared to vertical and slope ones.

By design, vertical embankments are either gravity or pile (Fig.). In this case, there are gravitational ones: red, from massive masonry, from giant massifs and prefabricated ones.

The underwater massive masonry embankment is made up of large concrete blocks (10 tons or more each). In the above-water part, a monolithic reinforced concrete belt is installed - a grillage, with mooring devices (fenders, mooring bollards, eyelets, etc.).

The embankments of giant massifs are made from prefabricated hollow reinforced concrete sections 15–30 m long and of the required height. They are delivered afloat to the installation site, then, filled with water, they are lowered onto the prepared base and filled with sand or crushed stone.

Pile embankments are made in the form of a solid wall made of metal or reinforced concrete sheet piles, held by metal anchor rods fixed in anchor slabs. On the shore side, the embankment is filled up to the mark of the port territory.

Fencing structures protecting the port water area from rough waters are breakwaters and breakwaters. Their construction requires large expenses, therefore, when constructing ports, they try to use well-protected natural bays, bays, lagoons, etc. to locate the port. Based on the shape of the transverse profile and the principle of wave damping, fencing structures are divided into (Fig.):

slopes;

with vertical walls;

end-to-end;

floating.

External fencing structures:

a – from soil with slopes secured with stone; b – from stone and concrete masses;

c – from giant massifs on a stone bed

Bank protection structures designed to protect coastal areas from erosion by waves and currents. They come in slope and semi-slope types (Fig.).

In addition to longitudinal coastal fortifications, transverse structures (buoys) are sometimes built, which are adjacent either to the longitudinal fortification or to the unprotected shore. Such groins promote sediment deposition, build up the shoreline and weaken the wave impact on the shore.

For periodic inspection and repair of the underwater part of ships they use ship repair hydraulic structures : docks, slips and slips.

Docks are designed to completely drain the underwater part of the vessel; they come in two types - floating and dry.

Slope and semi-slope coastal fortifications:

a – stone pavement; b – semi-slope reinforcement with a thrust pile row;

c – slope reinforcement made of rock fill and concrete slabs; d – special coastal fortification

A floating dock is a metal or reinforced concrete box-shaped structure consisting of a bottom and vertical walls. Inside the bottom and walls there are chambers (compartments) that can be filled and emptied with water using pumps. When the compartments are filled, the structure is immersed in water, and the ship can enter such a dock. Then the ship is secured in the dock and the water is pumped out from the compartments. The dock floats up with the ship, and the underwater part of the ship is above the water level.

Strengthening the coastline with transverse structures:

a – groins adjacent to an unprotected shore;

b – groins adjacent to the longitudinal dam

1 – groins; 2 – longitudinal dam; 3 – backfill; 4 – sediment deposits

A dry dock is an enclosed pool (chamber) with entrance gates or shutters. After entering the ship's dock, the water is pumped out from it, and the underwater part of the ship becomes available for inspection and repair.

To lift ships from the water, longitudinal slipways and transverse slips are used.

A boathouse is an inclined plane with rail tracks and a longitudinal bogie. The ship floats onto a trolley that is under water, and then this trolley is winched along the rails up to land.

Cross slips make it possible to lift and repair multiple vessels.

Small vessels can be lifted by powerful harbor cranes for inspection and repair.

TO navigation port hydraulic structures include sea beacons and navigation signs located within the port waters.

Scheme of a large port:

1 – port water area; 2 – port area; 3 – breakwater; 4 – they say; 5 – pier;

6 – embankment: 7 – swimming pool; 8 – lighthouse; 9 – port lights; 10 – pre-port railway station

Floating dock

Floating dock

Floating dock in Sevastopol

Floating dock

Aircraft carrier in dry dock. In the background is a floating dock

Dry dock

Inside the dry dock is a submarine

Ports are classified according to several criteria:

by appointment;

by cargo turnover;

by location;

according to the annual duration of operation;

in relation to the water level;

in relation to international trade.

By purpose ports can be divided into:

transport;

• fishing;

  ports of refuge.

Transport ports, intended for the transfer of cargo and passengers from one type of transport to another, can be divided into general purpose ports, in which a wide variety of cargo are processed and passengers are transferred, and special ports, intended for the processing of any one cargo (coal, ore, oil, forest, etc.). As a rule, special ports have powerful, high-performance transhipment devices that are used to process only one type of cargo.

Devices for transshipment of other types of cargo and passenger berths in special ports, if they exist, are of secondary importance.

There are often special passenger ports in which cargo operations are limited to baggage transhipment.

In the ports general purpose various loads are reloaded, and reloading devices are more universal. The largest domestic and foreign ports are general purpose ports.

Military ports or fleet bases are designed to serve the navy. They are characterized by the presence of large raids, pools for ship repairs, and special warehouses for military equipment and food. The territory of a military port often houses extensive barracks. For the defense of the port there are fortifications and other engineering structures.

fishing ports, Of which, fishing ports have received the greatest development; they are equipped with refrigerated warehouses and include processing plants. Such ports, being bases for the fishing fleet, usually have their own ship repair facilities.

Ports of refuge as the name implies, they are designed to provide shelter during a storm for ships that are not designed to withstand large waves. As a rule, natural bays and lagoons are used for refuge ports, with a minimum amount of dredging carried out in them to create roadsteads. In some cases, fencing structures are erected to create protected roadsteads. The maximum distance between ports of refuge is determined from the condition that ships and rafts can reach them from any point on the shipping route from the moment a signal about a suitable storm is received. Ports of refuge also include special fenced water areas at shipping passage structures in the upper reaches of reservoirs (the so-called outports), where ships wait to be locked into the lower reaches or exit into the reservoir.

Freight turnover is the total amount of processed cargo in tons. Cargo turnover includes all cargo that arrived at the port by water and departed from it by water within a certain time (per navigation, per month, per day). Freight turnover also includes cargo reloaded from one vessel to another. The total cargo turnover of the port usually has a heterogeneous structure and significant unevenness over time.

The port's cargo turnover must correspond to its throughput– weight amount of cargo processed per unit of time. If cargo turnover is the actual amount of cargo processed by a port (depending on the location of the port, trade flow in the region, etc.), then throughput is the technical ability of all port berths to pass (load and unload) a certain amount of cargo in a certain time. It is obvious that in order to ensure efficient and uniform operation of the port, its throughput must be greater or at least equal to the cargo turnover.

Depending on cargo and passenger turnover, all ports are divided into several categories. By port category, the following are determined: the administrative structure of the port and its operational staff, the costs of its operation and repair work, the volume of work for its development, the class of main structures, territory marks and estimated water levels. Due to the unequal labor intensity of processing various cargoes, the port category is determined by cargo turnover in conventional tons. There are tables for converting cargo of various natures (for example, timber, oil, crushed stone, containers), including passengers, into conventional tons.

Seaports, depending on annual cargo turnover, are divided into three main categories:

Nature of cargo turnover	annual cargo turnover, thousand tons
A. General ports
Total cargo turnover	More than 1400		600 or less
Freight turnover of general and timber cargo			100 or less
B. Special purpose ports handling:
a) bulk cargo (coal, ore)	More than 4500		3000 or less
b) inert mineral construction cargo	More than 10000		7000 or less

If the cargo turnover of a transport hub does not exceed 50 thousand tons per navigation or if it is intended only for transferring passengers of local and suburban lines, then it is called pier. From a classification point of view, the marinas belong to the IV category of ports. Non-category ports of the Russian Federation include St. Petersburg, Novorossiysk and Nakhodkinsky.

By location There are sea and river ports.

In its turn sea ​​ports there are:

wellhead;

coastal;

lagoon;

internal.

Wellhead ports characterized by the fact that sea and river waterways converge in them. Almost all of the world's largest ports (St. Petersburg, London, New York, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp, etc.) are located at river mouths. Port facilities are usually located along the banks of the river or in pools dug into the bank. At the same time, they tend to locate ports at some distance from the sea in order to avoid the construction of protective structures.

Seaport layouts:

a – in the lagoon; b – in a protected bay; c – in a semi-protected bay;

g – on the open coast

1 – port area; 2 – port water area; 3 – they say; 4 – approach channel;

Coastal seaports are created on the open seashore, and to protect their water areas and berths from waves, it is necessary to build protective structures (for example, the ports of Marseille and Odessa). The length of these structures in ports on sandy coasts is measured in kilometers. If the port is located in a natural, partially protected bay, then the length of the protective structures is reduced.

Lagoon ports are located in the depths of lagoons formed on sandy shores due to the deposition of natural spits separating the lagoons from the sea. Such ports do not need protection from waves, but have approach channels where it is necessary to maintain depths by removing sediment by dredging (the port of Ilyichevsk near Odessa, the Iranian port of Pahlavi).

Internal ports placed at a considerable distance from the sea on the lower (deep-water) sections of rivers (for example, Arkhangelsk, Kherson, Nikolaev, Rouen) or on artificial canals dug from the sea into the country (Manchester, Amsterdam, Brussels).

River ports according to purpose they are divided into:

• special;

  outports;

  ports of refuge.

General and special ports are designed to transfer cargo from ships to shore and back. In outports located on reservoirs (in the upper reaches of locks), convoys of vessels or rafts are reorganized before entering them into the lock chamber; Outports are also used for the storage of ships and rafts arriving from the lower to the upper water during a storm. Sometimes an outport and a general purpose port are simultaneously protected by the same fencing structures (Kuibyshevsky, Tsimlyansky, etc.). Ports of refuge serve only for the detention of ships and rafts during a storm; they are usually created in natural bays; mooring structures, as a rule, are not installed in them.

Ports are distinguished by location:

on free rivers, a characteristic feature of which is significant fluctuations in water level (up to 15 m or more);

on shipping canals in which the amplitude of level fluctuations is always small;

reservoirs and lakes, exposed to wind waves and, as a rule, requiring the construction of protective structures (these ports have much in common with sea ports).

Channel ports on free rivers usually have 2 roadsteads in the water area (arrival roadstead and departure roadstead), where towed trains are disbanded or formed accordingly, and from where individual barges are tugged to the berths for cargo operations. Roadsteads are usually located above or below the berths so as not to interfere with transit shipping passage and the water area near the berths. Significant fluctuations in water level determine the nature of mooring devices in a river port and determine the use of landing stages and, in some cases, the so-called. spring berths.

Off-channel ports on free rivers and ports on shipping canals are located in natural bays, on channel widenings or in an artificial bucket, in the latter case the port is called a bucket port. Off-channel ports are usually used for the winter lay-up of ships, and therefore have ship repair yards. Often in major ports There are also areas located in the riverbed and bucket areas. In this case, the port belongs to the category of mixed ports.

Main elements, hydraulic structures and specifications river ports are the same as those of sea ports. According to navigational cargo turnover, river ports are divided into 5 classes.

According to the annual duration of operation ports on internal waterways divided into permanent and temporary. Permanent ports are operated throughout the entire navigation. Temporary seasonal ports operate only part of the navigation, which is determined by hydrological conditions (the duration of the period of high water when ships can approach the berths) or the seasonality of the cargo (for example, agricultural products). Typically, temporary ports are not large in size - they are more like marinas. Sometimes temporary ports are created to serve large construction projects; such ports, operating for only a few years, sometimes receive millions of tons of cargo during their operation.

Relative to water level seaports are open and closed.

Closed seaports located in basins separated from the sea by locks or half-locks. Thanks to this, in a closed water area, by maintaining an increased water level, the amplitude of tidal fluctuations is reduced, which significantly reduces the cost of berth structures and facilitates the handling of ships.

In relation to international trade seaports are divided into ports of global, international and domestic importance.

Ports of global importance are centers of world trade and receive ships sailing across all seas and oceans. Ports of international importance receive ships sailing within the basin in which the port itself is located. Inland ports, or coastal ports, serve domestic transport between ports of only one country.

HISTORY OF PORTS IN RUSSIA

Greek port colonies

At the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Greeks called the current Black Sea “Pontus Aksinsky” - an inhospitable sea. There were legends among the Greeks that the wild inhabitants of the Crimea - the ferocious Tauri and Scythians - kill all aliens, sacrifice them to their gods, and make cups for wine from their skulls. In addition, storms were quite frequent on this sea, especially in winter.

Navigations at that time were carried out only directly near and along the coast. The main ships of the Greeks at that time were unirems, that is, galleys with one row of oars, up to 15 m long.

Around 750 BC e. The era of the Great Greek Colonization began. Historians believe that the reasons for such colonization were the overpopulation of the territory of Greece itself and the lack of food obtained on the rocky, infertile land of ancient Hellas. Over the next 200 years, the Greeks founded many colonies along the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. There were three main directions of colonization: to the west - present-day Italy, Spain; to the south - North Africa and to the northeast - the Black Sea.

As the Greek comedian Aristophanes wrote, “The Greeks settled around the Mediterranean like frogs around a swamp.” At the same time, the Greeks did not discover new lands, but followed the already beaten paths of the Phoenicians, displacing their predecessors. In addition, they did not explore new lands in depth, limiting their presence to the coasts.

Colonies were created, as a rule, in places where there were convenient natural harbors with good conditions for ships approaching the shore and loading and unloading various goods.

Greek colonial cities in the Northern Black Sea region in the 6th – 4th centuries BC. e.

Greek colonies in the North of the Black Sea in 450 BC. e.

On the Black Sea coast, the inhabitants of the Greek city of Miletus, located on the western coast of the Anatolian peninsula of Asia Minor, were especially successful in settling and creating colonies. The ancient Greek Anifaeus (late 2nd - early 3rd century BC) in his work “The Feast of the Sophists” wrote: “...The Milesians, until they indulged in luxury, defeated the Scythians and settled the glorious cities of Pontus...” The Milesians in the 6th century BC. e. were founded: the city of Tire on the right bank of the Dniester estuary (now the city of Belgorod-Dniester); the city of Olvia on the right bank of the Dnieper-Bug estuary (the village of Parutino); Feodosia and Panticapaeum (Kerch) in Crimea; Hermonassa (Tamanskaya village) on the eastern shore of the Kerch Bay, etc. After its creation in the 7th – 5th centuries BC. e. In the Black Sea region of numerous Greek city-states, the intensive development of the Black Sea and its coasts by the Greeks for trade purposes began. Approximately half of the grain consumed by Athens in the 6th century BC. e., was brought by sea from the Northern Black Sea region, mainly from fields located near Feodosia and Panticapaeum. At this time, the Greeks began to call the Black Sea Pont Euxine - “hospitable sea.”

The Greeks called the Kerch Strait the Cimmerian Bosporus (in contrast to the Thracian Bosporus near Constantinople), the Kuban River - Hypanis, the Don River - Tanais, the Sea of ​​Azov - Meotida.

One of the ancient authors wrote that in the 4th – 3rd centuries BC. e. “...many of the carriers of goods on cargo barges from Meotian (Azov - K.M.) on the tenth day the seas reached the harbor on the island of Rhodes, from here... on the fourth day they arrive in Alexandria, and from there, sailing upstream (along the Nile - K.M.), in another ten days they can arrive in Ethiopia without much difficulty. Thus, from the extreme cold to the highest degree of heat there was no more than twenty-five days of continuous travel ... "

In 480 BC. e. the cities of the eastern and western coasts of the Cimmerian Bosporus united, creating the Bosporan Kingdom with its capital in the city of Panticapaeum (modern Kerch). This kingdom is considered to be the first state union on the territory of present-day Russia. The prosperity of the Bosporan kingdom was determined by the sale to Greece of bread grown on the fertile Taman (Kuban) lands. In exchange for bread, blacksmith's products, clothing, olive oil, wine, jewelry, and household items were received from Greece.

Main elements of the port water area

The port water area, or water surface area, consists of the following main parts: external and internal roadsteads, pools or operational water area at the berths.

The largest part of the water area is the roadsteads. An external roadstead, outside the main enclosures, can usually be used for:

Laying of vessels, for transshipment operations afloat;

Bunkering of ships, supplies fresh water, food, etc.

The internal roadstead includes a water area that provides convenient entry and exit of ships, as well as their turning and maneuvering. The inner roadstead adjoins directly to the berths, which can be located frontally or on the piers.

The dimensions of the pools and the width of the operational water area at the berths should ensure the convenience of loading and unloading operations.

It should be taken into account that the indicated division of the water area into separate parts is to a certain extent conditional. In some ports there is no division into external and internal roadsteads. Sometimes reloading afloat and other similar operations are carried out both on the outer roadstead and on the inner roadstead.

The following basic requirements are imposed on the water area: protection from waves and drift, sufficient depth and appropriate planned dimensions.

The maximum permissible wave height in the waters of seaports depends on the type of operations that must be carried out in a given area of ​​the water, the direction of the waves in relation to the axis of the vessel and the size of the vessels. Parking of ships with a displacement of more than 10 thousand tons at fixed berths is allowed at heights not exceeding 1 m. When the direction of the waves coincides with the longitudinal axis of the vessel, the permissible height can be slightly increased to 1.5 m. For ships with a displacement of more than 50 thousand. t waves with a height of 1.5 and 2 m are allowed. Parking in the roadstead at floating berths can be allowed with waves 30 - 50% higher than the above. It should be taken into account that berths at which waves of greater height are observed, with their frequent repetition, cannot be used effectively enough. This leads to significant losses due to vessel downtime in stormy weather.

Depths in the port water area

The initial value for determining the depth of the water area is the draft of the design vessel, fully loaded, on an even keel. The depth is determined relative to the reference level for a given port. Depending on the intensity of the turnover of deep-draft vessels, reference levels are assigned on the basis of a schedule of long-term duration of standing of actual levels for the navigation period with a probability of 98 - 90%. Availability is the time expressed as a percentage when the water level is higher or coincides with the calculated one.

With a small turnover of ships in tidal seas, a design level with lower security is allowed. However, taking into account that the cost of downtime for a modern large-tonnage vessel is very high, currently they usually strive to ensure its passage to the port with minimal interruptions, i.e., with the greatest economically justifiable security. Even a significant increase in dredging work is fully justified in eliminating long-term vessel downtime.

There are a number of factors to consider when determining depth. First of all, it is necessary to ensure the free maneuvering of the vessel, the efficient operation of the propellers and the safety of the vessel's hull. This depth reserve is usually called navigation reserve; the amount of navigation reserve depends on the type of vessel and its length.

A significant influence on the reserve under the keel is exerted by waves, which cause the vessel to oscillate in the vertical direction, as well as roll and pitch. Vertical oscillations of a vessel under the influence of waves in shallow water are usually not very significant. Roll and trim are of great importance, the influence of which overlaps. The phenomena that occur in this case are very complex and require special study. Reserve for excitement ( Z 2) can be calculated using the formula:

Z 2 = 0.3 h - Z 1 (8)

h- estimated wave height in the water area;

Z 1- navigation reserve.

If the value Z 2 turns out negative, it is taken equal to zero.

When determining the depths in pools on the approaches to berths, where the ship can move at significant speed, it is necessary to take into account the additional increase in draft, which depends on a number of factors: ship speed, depth, reserve under the keel, uniformity of the ship's draft at rest, basic dimensions and ship hull shapes. There are various ways to determine the increase in draft while the ship is moving. Increasing the vessel's draft as it moves:

Z 3 = K sk V (9)

K sk= 0.033 for ships over 165 m in length;

K sk= 027 - for ships with a length of 165 -125 m;

K sk= 0.022 - for ships with a length of 125 - 85 m and K sk= 0.017 - for vessels less than 85 m long;

V- speed of the vessel.

This formula requires clarification, especially if the ship is moving through a channel of limited size.
When determining the depth of the water area, it is also necessary to take into account the drift margin ( Z 4), which is determined by the expected intensity of sediment deposition during the period between repair dredging. The reserve must be no less than the thickness of the soil layer at which successful operation of dredging equipment is possible.

Location of fencing structures

From the point of view of the location of protective structures, ports can be classified into the following types:

Ports without protective structures with natural protection, located in bays or estuaries, in closed or open basins

(Fig. 8 a, b, c)

Ports located in bays, with additional protection by single breakwaters or breakwaters, as well as combinations of both (Fig. 8 d);

Ports on open coasts, protected by a system of breakwaters and piers (Fig. 8 h-l).

The choice of the design of protective structures is a very complex problem, since it is necessary to ensure the simultaneous solution of a number of problems that sometimes require exactly the opposite approach.

The main tasks are to ensure the protection of the water area and the arrangement of berthing facilities, which allows for convenient access of ships to the berths and access of rolling stock to the border area. Structures should have a minimum length, be located at shallow depths and at the same time allow, if possible,

unhindered further development of the port. Each of the recommendations given cannot be understood unconditionally. Thus, by reducing the length of fencing structures, it is necessary to ensure a sufficient area of ​​protected water area.

To eliminate crowding at berths, fencing structures must be located from them at a distance of at least four design wavelengths. In addition, when choosing a construction route, it is necessary to take into account the soil conditions in the construction area. It may turn out that a structure that is longer, but built on better soils, will have a lower cost than a short structure on weak soils.

When transferring the structure to areas with shallow depths, where it would seem possible to reduce the volume of work on the construction of the structure, one must remember that when the depth decreases below a certain limit, the waves turn into breaking and breaking waves, which have a greater force impact, which requires strengthening the profile of the structure and , therefore, increasing its cost. When choosing the planned location of a fencing structure, which is also used to protect against drift, it is necessary to take into account the change in the configuration of the coastline under the influence of the newly built structure. When choosing the outline of protective structures, it is necessary, if possible, to take into account the presence of natural obstacles protecting the water area of ​​the port, islands, shoals, coastal bends, capes, etc.

Great difficulties arise when constructing ports on open coasts, where protection from waves and drift must mainly be provided by artificial fencing structures. Sometimes the water area of ​​such ports is formed by pools open in the main shore or located between artificially formed piers and a section of the water area fenced off by moles and breakwaters. Fencing structures in this case can be:

Breakwaters parallel to the shore, with spurs directed perpendicularly or at an angle to the shore;

Parallel breakwaters located perpendicular or almost perpendicular to the shore;

Converging breakwaters directed at an angle to the coastline;

Combinations of breakwaters directed at an angle to the shore with breakwaters.

Breakwaters parallel to the shore with spurs are usually constructed at relatively steep bottom slopes. The advantage of this arrangement of fencing structures is the possibility of developing the port by increasing the length of the breakwater in the desired direction (Marseille, Genoa). The entry of ships into such ports causes some difficulties. Due to the high costs of constructing a breakwater at great depths, the water area of ​​these ports is usually cramped. The axis of the entrance to the port has to be located at a slight angle to the shore, which is undesirable from a navigation point of view, since there is a danger of the ship being washed ashore during rough seas. To eliminate this danger, one of the spurs has to be lengthened, turning it into a pier. Such ports are usually constructed in the absence of significant alongshore sediment flow. The complex of breakwater, spur and jetty significantly disrupts the natural regime of the coast. In this case, sedimentation is possible at the entrance to the port, as well as its penetration into its water area.

Ports with protective structures in the form of paired parallel breakwaters directed perpendicularly or at an acute angle to the shore are usually located at the entrance to a narrow bay or at the mouth of a small river in areas with significant alongshore sediment flow. The port's berths are located in basins dug on the river bank. In the presence of significant tidal fluctuations, currents arise that wash the approach channel located between the moles, thus helping to maintain the required depths.

The length of paired breakwaters, their direction and the distance between them depend on the depths near the coast, the nature and intensity of sediment movement in the coastal zone, the direction and intensity of winds and currents. It is usually advisable to extend one of the breakwaters most exposed to drift, waves and currents. It is recommended to make the internal slopes of the piers more gentle and rough. In this way, it is possible to avoid reflection of waves and the formation of crowds in the channel.

To eliminate the penetration of waves directed along the axis of the channel, an outport is sometimes built directly at the entrance to the port in the form of a pool with gentle slopes of the bottom, ensuring the damping of waves entering the outport.

Fencing structures in the form of paired converging piers limit good wave extinction, since the gradual expansion of the water area from the entrance to the shore contributes to the gradual subsidence of the waves (Fig. 8j). Converging jetties can be located symmetrically or asymmetrically. The asymmetrical arrangement of breakwaters is often combined with the extension of one of them, which makes it possible to cover the entrance to the port from waves in a dangerous direction, as well as to ensure the flow of sediment around the port in order to prevent their penetration into the water area and sedimentation at the entrance to the port and on the approach channel. Fencing the port water area with converging piers has a disadvantage - if it is necessary to have a sufficient length of the port territory along the coastline, the piers must have a broken or curved outline, which can lead to crowding in the port water area. In such cases, in ports of significant size it is necessary to use a system of fencing structures consisting of several breakwaters and breakwaters. The choice of the outline of fencing structures should be combined with other measures that provide wave extinguishing and crowd elimination. These measures include the preservation of natural beaches, the construction of artificial slope structures, especially near the entrance to the port and in other places where high forces can penetrate and crowds can form. When constructing berth structures, preference should be given to structures with a sub-berth slope.

In some ports (Sochi, Tuapse, Batumi, Algeria, Cape Town), a very unfavorable “thrust” phenomenon occurs for the operation of ships. The cause of the draft is long-period waves caused by local changes in atmospheric pressure and other reasons. The draft causes vibrations of ships with small vertical and very significant horizontal amplitudes. The period of oscillation of a ship during a draft is usually many times greater than the period during normal sea waves. In case of danger of long-period waves, it is recommended to study the influence of intermediate separation structures, which can also serve as berths.

By dividing large pools into parts, it is sometimes possible to eliminate dangerous resonant vibrations in the port water area. It should be borne in mind that structures made from fill may be permeable to long-period waves.

Location and dimensions of the port entrance

The entrance to the port must first of all meet the requirements of convenience and safety for the passage of ships. Waves that are dangerous from the point of view of normal operation of ships in the water area and at the port berths should not penetrate through the entrance.

If the waves and wind in the area of ​​the designed port can significantly change direction, while remaining dangerous in magnitude, it may be advisable to arrange two or more entrances to the port.

The presence of a second entrance facilitates the maneuvering of ships, improves fire safety conditions in the port, and is also advisable from the point of view of special requirements.

Sometimes the entrances to the same port have different sizes and are intended for ships of different tonnage. The number of port entries is sometimes made dependent on the port's shipping turnover. It is roughly estimated that it takes 2 hours to enter and exit under average conditions. Accordingly, the entry capacity is about 400 transport vessels per month. This value requires clarification under the conditions of each specific port. It can be significantly increased if the port is well equipped with tugboats and their efficient operation.

In the presence of intense sediment flows, the requirements for protecting approach channels from drift must be taken into account. The entrance to the port is usually located in the deepest part of the water area and at the greatest distance from the coast. To eliminate the danger of a ship collapsing on the heads of protective structures, when entering the port, the ship should move as straight as possible and only after entering a protected water area can it turn along a curve. For navigation reasons, the entry axis should be directed at the smallest possible angle to the direction of the prevailing wind and waves. Thus, the danger of the vessel being carried away onto the protective structures is reduced. However, this direction of entry into the port is the most dangerous from the point of view of wave penetration into the water area. In this regard, the angle between the entrance axis and the direction of the wave beam a should be within 45 - 70° (Fig. 9).

To eliminate the danger of beaching a vessel, a second restriction is sometimes placed regarding the direction of entry. Angle between the axis of the port entrance and the direction of the coastline b must be more than 30°. This requirement is often difficult to satisfy while simultaneously satisfying the first angle requirement ά , and therefore the requirement for the angle b in many existing ports it is not observed. If, due to local conditions, it turns out to be impossible to fully simultaneously satisfy security and navigation requirements, it is necessary to develop measures for additional protection of the water area by installing wave-protecting spurs or other similar measures.

Compliance with the requirement that the axis of the port entrance is not close to the direction of the coastline can be somewhat relaxed at a significant distance from the port entrance to the design depth line near the coast. In this case, the danger of the ship being washed ashore is reduced. To allow the vessel to maneuver at the entrance, its distance from the design depths must be at least two to three vessel lengths. A similar condition is met, for example, in the Novorossiysk port.

Determination of the main dimensions of the port water area

The dimensions of the water area consist of the parts necessary for maneuvering ships, parts of the water area adjacent to the berths, and parts of the water area used for loading and unloading operations afloat, as well as for berthing ships in the internal roadstead.

When determining the size of the part of the water area intended for maneuvering ships, it is necessary to take into account the permissible speed when entering the port, as well as the speed of maneuvering of the vessel in the port water area. The permissible speed of ships when entering the port can vary between 2-4 knots. This usually corresponds to a small forward movement, in some cases to a medium one.

The circulation diameter for oil tankers is about three ship lengths, for dry cargo ships - about five.

The vessel enters a protected water area in a straight line and reduces speed, simultaneously turning in the desired direction. The length of the initial straight section of the trajectory is equal to 3-5L (L- length of the vessel). The minimum radius of curvature of the transitional curved section of the vessel's trajectory is usually taken within 3-5L. The minimum radius of the turning circle is assumed to be 2L, when moving with tugs - L.

If maneuvering of the largest vessels visiting a given port still turns out to be impossible, then it is necessary to move on to maneuvering with tugs. With the wake position of the vessel, bow and stern tugs, the total length of the caravan is:

L= L+2L in +2L bt (10)

L- length of the vessel;

L in- tug length;

L bt- length of the towing rope.

If we take into account the magnitude ΔL- reserve for vibrations of the vessel during maneuvering, then with sufficient accuracy the diameter of the pool for maneuvering with tugs can be taken equal to 2-3L instead of 4-5 L when maneuvering under its own power.

Clearance must be left between the path of a moving vessel and the berth structures V" m allowing the staging of a vessel with a floating bunker tank and barges, as well as passage for an oncoming vessel with tugs. Magnitude V" m can be determined according to the scheme (Fig. 12).

V" m = 2.55 Vs + V p, + 2V l + ZV b + ΔV + ΔV1 (11)

B with- width of the sea vessel;

In p- width of the floating crane

V l- width of the lighter barge;

B b- width of the tug.

Sometimes in long pools or at the heads of piers, water areas are provided for a turning circle with a diameter 2L. The area of ​​the pools is

S b =B b L b (12)

here the length of the pool is determined from the condition

L b =nL c + (n + 1) ΔL(13)

n- number of ships

Lc- length of the design vessel;

ΔL- the average gap between ships, as well as between the ends of the pier and the pool and the bow (stern) of the nearest ship.

The above calculations in some cases require clarification in accordance with the technological schemes of transshipment operations and methods of vessel maintenance used at the berths in question. In particular, only floating bunkering tanks are usually installed on the free side of passenger and oil tankers.

The above diagrams refer to cases of ships being moored side-by-side. Meanwhile, at some specialized berths, ships are installed perpendicular to the cordon line. This is how technical fleet vessels, ferries and some other types of vessels are usually installed, for example, trailer ships loaded from the bow or stern. In this case, a water area must be provided at the berth to provide convenient access for ships.

Mooring front location

Berths in ports are divided into coastal and offshore. The mooring line, along which the coastal berths are located, can have a different shape, the outline of which is selected depending on: local conditions, including topographic factors (the outline of the coastline, the shape of the coast and bottom relief), hydrological factors (wave regimes, currents, ice regime) , geological factors (type and form of soil occurrence on the territory and water area of ​​the port); accepted technology for processing and storing cargo; availability and possibility of creating water and land approaches to the berth.

Domestic and foreign experiences in port construction show that the following arrangement of berthing lines is currently used:

Frontal (Fig. 13 a-c), in which berths are located along straight or broken lines, following one after the other along the coastline, in basins and near structures delimiting the port water area (piers);

Piers (Fig. 13 d, e), when the berths are located along the perimeter of protrusions extended into the water area - piers in the shape of a rectangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, etc.;

Stepped (Fig. 13 f), in which the berths are located on a broken line shaped like steps.

The listed forms of the berth line have their advantages and disadvantages, which must be taken into account when designing.

The frontal arrangement of berths has the following advantages:

A water area that is simpler in shape, not constrained by protruding parts of the berth front, which simplifies the maneuvering of ships and reduces the possibility of ice accumulation in the water area;

It simplifies the creation of a wide port area, which is especially important during the construction of berths for transshipment of containers and some other types of specialized berths that require large storage areas;

Soils along the length of the berths usually turn out to be more uniform, which has a favorable effect on the structural forms of the berths;

The construction of berth structures, laying communications, placing rear warehouses and connecting them with the berthing front is simplified.

The disadvantages of the frontal arrangement of berths include:

Less compact, sprawling layout of the port, sometimes associated with insufficiently efficient use of the coastline, with the lengthening of land and water approaches, as well as communications:

In the presence of artificial fencing structures, difficulties arise for the development and reconstruction of the port;

The design of land access routes is becoming more complicated; necessary. independent branch of railway tracks for every 5 - b berths;

Difficulties arise when zoning and specializing port berths, associated with the creation of gaps between groups of berths, since the territory and coastline in the area of ​​these gaps may be unused.

The frontal arrangement of the mooring front is usually used in elongated water areas extending deep into the territory (estuaries of rivers, estuaries, fiords), in artificially formed open and closed basins, less often - on open coasts and in bays fenced by moles and breakwaters.

The compact pier system for marking the berth front is used more often than the frontal one. It also has its disadvantages:

Some underutilization of the territory at the locations of railway and road ramps to the piers;

Difficulty in using the end parts of piers as berths;

Difficulty in creating significant areas of territory directly at the berth front on the piers and the removal of rear warehouses located on the main territory from the cordon line;

The complexity of the design and construction of piers compared to coastal berths due to changes in natural depths and soils along the length of the pier.

The listed disadvantages of the pier system are less significant than their advantages. In this regard, the frontal system has limited use.

Depending on their purpose, piers are divided into wide and narrow. Wide piers (240-300 m or more) are usually used for general cargo that is handled by cranes and requires placement of railway tracks on the piers and, if possible, at least transit warehouses.

On narrow piers used as specialized berths, railway tracks are usually not laid. They serve to accommodate specialized reloading devices or hose lifts for oil berths. Narrow piers can have different shapes. The pier itself has a relatively short length, providing fairly reliable contact between the vessel and the structure. In addition, the berth includes a trestle connecting the narrow pier with the shore, and separate supports - bollards.

In some cases, the main berth of the structure is rotated parallel to the shore and the narrow pier turns into T- or G-shaped pier (Fig. 14). Depending on the purpose of the berth, conveyor lines or pipelines are laid along the connecting overpass. If the berth is located at a considerable distance from the shore, it is possible to use an island berth structure without a connecting overpass. In this case, the cargo will be supplied by underwater pipelines or using an overhead cable car. The stepped design of the quay front is intermediate between the front and pier; it has some advantages and disadvantages of these two systems. In certain local conditions it can and does find successful application.

When determining the berth line, technology and layout must be taken into account, but considerations of the economy and reliability of the decision made are essential. If possible, the foundation of the structure should be dense soil. It is necessary to strive to reduce the volume of rock excavation. For non-rocky soils, the volumes of the excavation should be approximately equal to the volume of the embankment, especially if it is possible to use soils taken from the excavation to form territories.

In addition to coastal berths, the port also has road berths, which can be stationary in the form of piers, island berths or rotating towers, with mooring at several berth buoys, using single buoys of a special design.

Port area

The port area consists of the following main parts:

Cordon areas, including the operational strip located at the berth;

Areas occupied by warehouses located on the first and second lines;

Areas where all types of access roads at berths and warehouses are located, as well as gaps between them;

Rear areas for indoor and outdoor warehouses;

Areas occupied by all types of access roads, as well as marshalling yards and parking lots in the rear area of ​​the port;

Areas for service, administrative, household and auxiliary buildings;

Areas for ship repair enterprises;

Areas occupied by industrial enterprises, if they have specialized berths on the port territory and are located in close proximity from the coastline.

The most important areas from the point of view of direct performance of transshipment work are the border areas. However, normal operation of the entire port as a whole is possible only with a sufficient total area and successful placement of all parts of the port territory. The cross-sectional layout of a berth for piece cargo has changed considerably since the beginning of this century. Due to changes in the methods of transshipment of goods and their movement within and outside the port, the width of the berth area gradually increased from 40 to 150-300 m when transshipping ordinary piece goods in packages and on pallets, and up to 250-600 m for container berths. The berth area consists of several zones. For berths where piece cargo is transshipped, the Soyuzmornii project proposed the following division of the cordon strip into zones (Fig. 15): A- zone from the cordon to the crane runway;
B- zone of border, crane and railway tracks; IN- the area from the crane and railway tracks to the covered warehouse; G- area of ​​covered warehouses; D- zone of rear railway tracks; E- area of ​​rear open warehouses; AND- rear zone highway.

Zone dimensions A are determined from the conditions for ensuring the safe operation of portal cranes and eliminating the possibility of damage to them by ships approaching at an angle or with a list, as well as during loading and unloading operations or when a ship is moored at the berth during rough seas. This area is also used for installing cordon berthing bollards, power supply columns and other equipment. In this regard, in last years there is a tendency to increase the width of the zone A up to 3 m. Zone width A= 2.25 m is allowed only for berths adjacent to existing ones, for which it is equal to this value.

In the zone B tracks for portal cranes, as well as railway loading and unloading and running tracks are laid. The width of this zone consists of the track width of the crane track and the width of the strip occupied by the railway tracks located behind the crane portal towards the shore.

Depending on the number of tracks laid under the portal, the track width will be equal to 6 m for a single-track portal, 10.5 m for a double-track and 15.3 m for a three-track portal. The distance between the axes of the railway tracks under the portal is taken equal to 4.8 m, and for tracks located outside the portal 4.5 - 5.3 m. The number of railway tracks laid outside the portal is determined by the intensity and technology of cargo operations. The number of railway tracks at berths equipped with specialized transshipment complexes is specified by special calculations. This clarification is also required in case of significant removal of sorting yards and in other similar cases.

Zone IN, sometimes called an operational platform, is divided into several separate strips, the dimensions and purpose of which are different for warehouses with and without a ramp.

Zones G And E- these are areas of indoor and outdoor warehouses. Zone D used to accommodate rear railway tracks. In the rear zone, as a rule, there are two tracks, and when warehouses are located in two lines, there are three.

Rear road zone width AND consists of a roadway 7 -10 m wide, a pedestrian sidewalk 1.5 m wide and a strip of green space 4 - 5 m. The total width of the zone AND– 10 -17 m. The width of the entire strip of the cordon area at the berth is obtained by summing the zones A - F.

These dimensions in some cases require serious adjustments depending on local conditions and the loading and unloading devices used. There is a tendency to increase the width of the territory, which improves the operating conditions of reloading equipment and storage areas.

Unlike the elements of seaports, which operate in constant interaction with wave loads, the water areas of river and reservoir ports are in more favorable conditions. Wind waves arising on the surface of rivers, as a rule, do not have a significant impact on shipping and port operation. In this regard, river and sometimes reservoir ports are characterized primarily by the absence of fencing structures. In some cases, fencing structures in river ports created for protection from moving ice or the formation of separate water areas - backwaters intended for winter lay-up and repair of ships.

Fig.2.1. The main elements of the seaport water area: 1-approach channel; 2-shipping situation; 3-external fencing structures; 4-port water area; 5-berth front; 6-shore-strengthening; 7-port territory; 8-reload raid; 9-navigation raid

However, the composition of the port water area on inland waterways is, as a rule, more complex than that of a seaport.

The water approaches to a river or reservoir port include (in addition to those listed in 2.2) the following main elements (Fig. 2.2.).

Main navigation route- a transit shipping route used throughout the entire navigation period, through which the bulk of cargo and passenger transportation is carried out, mainly in large-tonnage vessels and trains.

Additional navigation- transit shipping passage, designed to shorten the route of ships and convoys, or to protect them from wave action in difficult hydrological conditions.

Local shipping- a shipping passage for communication with individual points of the river, as well as points located on its tributaries with the main shipping passage.

Water approach to the pier- a ship passage connecting a passenger or cargo berth with a local or transit ship passage.

Fig.2.2. Schemes of ship passages and water approaches to river and reservoir ports: 1 - main; 2-seater; 3-water approaches to berths

Cargo transportation on inland waterways is carried out by both self-propelled and non-self-propelled vessels. Non-self-propelled vessels (as a rule, with dissimilar cargoes) are formed into convoys and transported using tugs. To accommodate arriving trains and sort ships by type of cargo, river and reservoir ports provide sorting raid . In large ports, several such raids can be organized with specialization for groups of ships, and raids can also be allocated for manning non-self-propelled ships departing from the port. In this regard, the elements of a river or reservoir port may include arrival raid And departure raid .

In ports located at the junction of sections of a river or its tributaries with different navigable depths, some vessels are usually processed at reloading raid using floating cranes. In some cases, the vessel is not completely unloaded, but only partially (unloaded), in order to reduce the draft and allow further movement along shallow sections of the river, or to approach the copper water pier.

Fig.2.4. The main elements of the reservoir port: 1-water area; 2-territory;

3-berth front; 4-departure raid; 5-fencing structures; 6- settlement raid during a storm; 7-arrival raid

It should be noted that on inland waterways, the entire composition of the above elements of the port water area is used only by non-self-propelled vessels. Self-propelled cargo, passenger and cargo-passenger ships approach the berths, bypassing sorting, and in most cases, transshipment roads.

3.4. MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE PORT TERRITORY

Port area- a section of the coastal zone adjacent to the berth front on which the port coastal facilities are located: transshipment equipment, covered warehouses and open storage areas, buildings, structures, access roads, communications, etc.

The port territory consists of three main parts (Fig. 2.5): I - border area (operational and production); II - rear; III - portside.

Prikordonnaya (operational and production) part is adjacent directly to the berthing front and includes the territory from the cordon line to the rear operational warehouses. In the border area of ​​the port there is a complex of elements necessary to ensure the technological process of the port: transhipment equipment, border railway tracks, road passages, border warehouses, lighting masts, pantographs, etc. Marine or river terminals are located on passenger berths in the border area of ​​the territory.

Fig.2.5. The main parts of the channel port territory: I - border area (operational and production); II - rear: 1) garage; 2) warehouses for long-term storage of goods; 3) workshops; 4) material warehouse; 5) transformer substation; III - portside: 6) port management; 7) fire station; 8) dining room; 9) parking

Taking into account the development prospects of the port, the design includes reserve territory .

Rear part of the port territory is intended to accommodate production and service and auxiliary elements: warehouses for long-term storage of goods, warehouses for logistics and production supplies, workshops, garages, offices of cargo areas, transformer substations, etc.

Priportovaya part of the territory includes the port control building, canteen, fire station, parking lots, etc.

Within the three main parts of the port, five functional zones are distinguished:

1) operating room;

2) production;

3) general port facilities;

4) pre-port;

5)passenger operations.

The first three zones are regime - with fencing and access system. The pre-port and passenger operations area form non-mode part of the territory. In large ports, the passenger operations area is divided into two sections: long-distance and suburban services.

In river ports, with significant (over 6 m) seasonal fluctuations in level, the territory can be located on one horizon (single-tier port) or have two groups of berths on different horizons (double-tier port).

Part land approaches The port is connected to a system of railways, roads and pipelines. The largest part of land approaches is occupied by railway devices, which include port and regional marshalling stations and parks, loading and unloading and connecting tracks.

In addition to the main elements intended to ensure loading, unloading and passenger operations, a number of auxiliary services and structures are located on the port territory: bunkering and construction bases, complex maintenance facilities for transport vessels, ship repair enterprises.

3.5. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PORT ELEMENTS

Regardless of the location, purpose, size of cargo and ship traffic, port elements must meet basic requirements to ensure trouble-free, continuous and efficient operation of the port. In general, these requirements are divided into shipping, operational, construction and economic.

Shipping(navigation) requirements arise from the safety conditions when ships approach the port (or depart from it), as well as maneuvering in the port waters. In accordance with shipping requirements, the elements of the port water area must provide:

· safety and convenience of approach to the port in unfavorable hydrometeorological conditions;

· reliable protection of the port water area from waves, currents, sediments and ice;

· sufficient size of the water area to completely dampen the inertia of the vessel, maneuver it using its own means and approach the berths;

· sufficient passage depths in the approach channel, entrance roadstead and operational water area.

Operational Requirements must ensure efficient transport and production activities of the port and include:

· non-floodability of the territory;

· compliance of the main dimensions of the port elements with the calculated and future cargo and ship turnover;

· optimal protection of the port's operational basins from waves;

· ensuring the performance of loading and unloading operations and passenger operations under unfavorable hydrometeorological conditions;

· rational placement of the port in relation to water and land routes and its connection with the city;

· rational zoning and regionalization of the port territory, taking into account environmental requirements and sanitary standards;

· provision shortest path movement of cargo through the port;

· ensuring fire safety, labor protection conditions and cargo safety;

· performing complex fleet maintenance operations;

· favorable working conditions for port workers and ship crews;

· the ability to effectively use a freezing port during the non-navigation period.

Economic requirements provide for ensuring high efficiency of construction and operation of the port and provide for:

· application of the most economical designs and construction methods;

· maximum use of local building materials;

· organizing the work of frozen ports during the non-navigation period (for example, shipment and accumulation of bulk cargo after the closure of navigation, leasing of covered warehouses, etc.);

· use of advanced technological schemes and efficient reloading equipment.

Construction requirements provide:

· selection of rational and economical types of structures;

· ensuring the necessary stability and reliability;

· ensuring highly efficient organization and technology of construction work;

· opportunity further development and port reconstruction.

Security questions on the topic

When developing a port water area project, the navigation depth necessary for the safe movement of the design type of vessel at a given speed under the most unfavorable design conditions is determined using the formula:

Where is the draft of the design type of the vessel when loaded, m;

Minimum navigation reserve (ensuring the safety and controllability of the vessel when moving), m;

Wave reserve (for submersion of the tip of the vessel during waves), m;

Speed ​​reserve (for a change in the landing of the vessel while moving compared to landing the vessel at rest in calm water), m;

Depth reserve for the list and trim of the vessel due to improper loading, movement of cargo, as well as during vessel circulation, m.

The vessel with the greatest draft of all the vessels taken into account is accepted as the design vessel.

The minimum navigation margin is determined depending on the vessel's draft and soil characteristics:

Silty soil - =0.04*;

Alluvial soil (silted sand, shell, gravel) -=0.05* ;

Packed soil (dense sand, clay) - =0.06*;

Rocky soil - =-0.07*.

The wave reserve is determined by the formula:

Where h is the estimated wave height, m.

The estimated wave height is determined by the formula:

Where is the angular speed of the wind, m/s.

The amount of speed reserve is determined according to Table 9. The speed of the vessel is set independently.

Table 9 - Speed ​​reserve

The reserve for heel and trim of the vessel is determined depending on the type of vessel according to Table 10.

Table 10 - Vessel roll reserve

In addition to navigation, the design depth of the port water area is calculated using the formula:

Where is the drift margin, m.

The margin for drift and clogging of the internal water area of ​​the port should be taken depending on the expected intensity of sediment deposition during the period between repair dredging works (taking into account the clogging of the water area with bulk cargo), but not less than the value ensuring the productive operation of the dredger, taken equal to 0.4, but also no more than 1.2 m.

The resulting design depth of the port water area must be rounded up to the standard depth. According to the Standards for the Technological Design of Seaports, the standard depths are, m: 5.0; 6.5; 7.25; 8.25; 9.75; 11.5; 13.0; 15.0.

Determination of the port water area

The area of ​​the port water area consists of the sum of the areas of the shunting roadstead, the operational part of the water area and roadstead parking areas. Calculated based on the vessel with the largest dimensions.

Entrance raid

The entrance road must have dimensions and outlines in plan that make it possible, in strong winds, to carry out any maneuvers required when entering or leaving the port:

The ability to dampen the inertia of an incoming vessel;

The ability to turn the vessel using its own means to the required angle along the circulation arc;

Possibility of anchor release and temporary emergency parking.

The specified requirements are met provided that a circle with a diameter of at least D=3.5* can be inscribed on the area of ​​the entrance roadstead. The minimum distance of a straight section along the entrance axis in specific cases can be increased to 4.5*, taking into account the maneuvering characteristics of the design types of vessels, as well as hydrometeorological conditions (ice conditions, currents, wind) of the designed port.

The area of ​​the entrance roadstead is determined by the area of ​​the circle, the diameter of which is equal to 3.5 times the length of the vessel:

Where d is the diameter of the circle, equal to d=3.5*.

The boundaries of the area intended for maneuvering must be located at a distance of at least 2* (- the width of the vessel) from fencing and other structures. This area should not overlap with other areas allocated for the laying of vessels and carrying out raid operations, as well as with the operational water area.

Operational part of the water area

The operational part of the water area is understood as the introductory space adjacent to the berthing fronts, including:

Water space between piers;

The water surface of pools embedded in the territory;

Areas of the water area adjacent to frontally located berths and separate piers.

With frontal berths, the width of the operating part of the water area depends on the number of berths. If the number of berths is more than two, then the width is determined by the formula

Where is the width of the tug, m;

Lighter barge width, m;

Width of floating loader, m;

Clearance between stationary and moving vessels, m;

Clearance between moving vessels, m.

In calculations it is accepted

The area of ​​the operational part of the water area is calculated by the formula

Where is the length of the operational part of the water area.

The length of the operational part of the water area is equal to the length of the berthing front.

Skerries- an accumulation of many islands of various sizes, surface rocks, stones in the coastal area.

Fjord- a narrow, deep bay (bay) protruding far into the mountainous land with high and very steep banks. Fjords have a trough-shaped bed and are often separated from the sea by underwater rapids.

Bay, bay- part of the ocean or sea that juts out into the land. Bay- This is a small bay. There is no strict distinction between them.

Strait- a narrow body of water between two continents, islands, or between continents and islands, connecting adjacent oceans, seas or parts thereof.

Passage- a cramped, but accessible for through navigation section of water space between shores, islands and dangers.

Lip- local name for elongated bays formed by river mouths.

Liman- a shallow bay that protrudes deeply into the land with spits and bars, which is a valley of the river mouth flooded by the sea or a flooded coastal lowland.

Lagoon- stretched along the coast, as a rule, a shallow bay (bay) with salty or brackish water, connected to the sea by a small passage or completely separated from it by a spit.

Plyos- a relatively vast and safe area for navigation, located among islands, rocks, banks and other obstacles that allow ships to maneuver.

Fairway- a safe route for ships to navigate among various kinds of obstacles (between islands, underwater dangers, in areas dangerous from mines, etc.), shown on the map and usually indicated by means of navigation equipment.

Sea channel- a canal artificially dug into seabed for the passage of ships through shallow waters indicated by navigation equipment.

Raid- a section of water, near the coast or islands, usually located in front of a port, harbour, coastal settlement or river mouth, used for parking, and in some cases for transshipment of ships. Depending on the degree of protection from winds, raids can be open or closed. The great advantage of the roadstead is the presence of well-holding soil, sufficient depths (but not more than 50 m), a wide and danger-free entrance from the sea, as well as the absence of obstacles to entering the roadstead at any time and in any weather.

Harbor- a part of the port water area, completely protected from waves, bordered by the port territory and intended for parking and cargo operations of ships.

Outport- a roadstead located outside or inside the port waters (but outside the internal harbors), protected by breakwaters, breakwaters or having natural shelters.

Pool- part of the port water area, formed by berths, piers and jetties, intended for parking and cargo operations. In ports where significant fluctuations in sea level are observed, the pools are isolated from the rest of the water area with special locks. Such pools are sometimes called docks.

Port- coastal water area, naturally or artificially protected from waves, drift and drift ice, and the coastal strip adjacent to this water area (port area), equipped with berthing facilities. According to their purpose, ports are divided into commercial, fishing, ports of refuge and military bases.

Various factors have a significant impact on the maneuvering of ships. hydraulic structures of the port.

Dam- a structure in the form of a fortified embankment (shaft) on or near the shore, designed to protect the shore from erosion and flooding by the sea, protect channels and roadsteads from waves and drifts, and connect different areas of land with each other.

Like- an external protective structure connected to the shore. The final part of the structure protruding into the sea is called the head of the pier, and the part adjacent to the shore is called the root of the pier.

Breakwater- an external protective structure not connected to the shore.

Pier- a mooring structure in the form of a dam protruding from the shore and used for mooring ships from the longitudinal sides, and sometimes from the head (seaward) part.

Overpass- a mooring structure built on separate supports.

Landing stage (pier)- a pontoon located near the shore and intended for berthing small ships and transshipment operations.

Berth- a place where ships are moored in a port, harbor, etc. Quays, piers, overpasses, jetties, piers, etc. can serve as berths.

Pal- 1) a structure in the form of a bush of piles or a reinforced concrete pipe driven into the ground, installed at the bottom, filled and raised above the water so much that mooring lines can be attached to it at the highest water level; 2) a structure in the form of individual piles or clusters of piles driven into the ground and serving to protect against the ship’s landing on the shore.