Interstellar travel is not science fiction. Projects and technologies

Modern technologies and discoveries are taking space exploration to a completely new level, but interstellar travel is still a dream. But is it so unrealistic and unattainable? What can we do now and what can we expect in the near future?

10/11/2011, Tue, 17:27, Moscow time

Astronomers using the Kepler telescope have discovered 54 potentially habitable exoplanets. These distant worlds are in the habitable zone, i.e. at a certain distance from the central star, allowing water to be maintained in liquid form on the surface of the planet.

However, the answer to the main question, whether we are alone in the Universe, is difficult to obtain - due to the enormous distance separating the Solar System and our closest neighbors. For example, the “promising” planet Gliese 581g is located at a distance of 20 light years - this is close enough by cosmic standards, but still too far for terrestrial instruments.

The abundance of exoplanets within a radius of 100 light years or less from Earth and the enormous scientific and even civilizational interest that they represent for humanity force us to take a fresh look at the hitherto fantastic idea of ​​interstellar travel.

The stars closest to our solar system

Flight to other stars is, of course, a matter of technology. Moreover, there are several possibilities for achieving such a distant goal, and the choice in favor of one method or another has not yet been made.

Make way for drones

Humanity has already sent interstellar vehicles into space: the Pioneer and Voyager probes. Currently, they have left the solar system, but their speed does not allow us to talk about any rapid achievement of the goal. Thus, Voyager 1, moving at a speed of about 17 km/s, will fly even to the closest star Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years) for an incredibly long time - 17 thousand years.

It is obvious that with modern rocket engines we will not get anywhere further than the Solar System: to transport 1 kg of cargo even to the nearby Proxima Centauri, tens of thousands of tons of fuel are needed. At the same time, as the mass of the ship increases, the amount of required fuel increases, and additional fuel is needed to transport it. A vicious circle that puts an end to tanks with chemical fuel - the construction of a space vessel weighing billions of tons seems to be an absolutely incredible undertaking. Simple calculations using Tsiolkovsky's formula demonstrate that accelerating chemically propelled spacecraft to about 10% the speed of light would require more fuel than is available in the known universe.

The nuclear fusion reaction produces energy per unit mass on average a million times more than chemical combustion processes. That is why in the 1970s NASA turned its attention to the possibility of using thermonuclear rocket engines. The Daedalus unmanned spacecraft project involved the creation of an engine in which small pellets of thermonuclear fuel would be fed into a combustion chamber and ignited by electron beams. The thermonuclear reaction products fly out of the engine nozzle and give the ship acceleration.

Spaceship Daedalus compared to the Empire State Building

Daedalus was supposed to take on board 50 thousand tons of fuel pellets with a diameter of 40 and 20 mm. The granules consist of a core containing deuterium and tritium and a shell of helium-3. The latter makes up only 10-15% of the mass of the fuel pellet, but, in fact, is the fuel. Helium-3 is abundant on the Moon, and deuterium is widely used in the nuclear industry. The deuterium core serves as a detonator to ignite the fusion reaction and provokes a powerful reaction with the release of a reactive plasma jet, which is controlled by a powerful magnetic field. The main molybdenum combustion chamber of the Daedalus engine was supposed to weigh more than 218 tons, the second stage chamber - 25 tons. Magnetic superconducting coils also match the huge reactor: the first weighs 124.7 tons, and the second - 43.6 tons. For comparison, the dry weight of the shuttle is less than 100 tons.

The Daedalus flight was planned to be a two-stage one: the first stage engine was supposed to operate for more than 2 years and burn 16 billion fuel pellets. After the separation of the first stage, the second stage engine operated for almost two years. Thus, in 3.81 years of continuous acceleration, Daedalus would have reached a maximum speed of 12.2% of the speed of light. Such a ship will cover the distance to Barnard's star (5.96 light years) in 50 years and will be able, flying through a distant star system, to transmit the results of its observations via radio to Earth. Thus, the entire mission will take about 56 years.

The Stanford Tor is a colossal structure with entire cities inside the rim.

Despite the great difficulties in ensuring the reliability of Daedalus’s numerous systems and its enormous cost, this project can be implemented at the current level of technology. Moreover, in 2009, a team of enthusiasts revived work on the thermonuclear ship project. Project Icarus currently includes 20 scientific topics on the theoretical development of interstellar spacecraft systems and materials.

Thus, unmanned interstellar flights over distances of up to 10 light years are already possible today, which will take about 100 years of flight plus the time for the radio signal to travel back to Earth. The star systems Alpha Centauri, Barnard's Star, Sirius, Epsilon Eridani, UV Ceti, Ross 154 and 248, CN Leo, WISE 1541-2250 fit within this radius. As we can see, there are enough objects near the Earth to be studied using unmanned missions. But what if robots find something truly unusual and unique, such as a complex biosphere? Will an expedition with human participation be able to go to distant planets?

Lifelong flight

If we can start building an unmanned ship today, then with a manned ship the situation is more complicated. First of all, the issue of flight time is acute. Let's take the same Barnard star. Cosmonauts will have to be prepared for a manned flight from school, since even if the launch from Earth takes place on their 20th anniversary, the spacecraft will reach the mission goal by the 70th or even 100th anniversary (taking into account the need for braking, which is not necessary in an unmanned flight) . Selecting a crew at a young age is fraught with psychological incompatibility and interpersonal conflicts, and the age of 100 does not give hope for fruitful work on the surface of the planet and for returning home.

However, is there any point in returning? Numerous NASA studies lead to a disappointing conclusion: a prolonged stay in zero gravity will irreversibly destroy the health of astronauts. Thus, the work of biology professor Robert Fitts with ISS astronauts shows that even despite vigorous physical exercise on board the spacecraft, after a three-year mission to Mars, large muscles, such as the calf muscles, will become 50% weaker. Bone mineral density also decreases similarly. As a result, ability to work and survival in extreme situations decreases significantly, and the period of adaptation to normal gravity will be at least a year. Flight in zero gravity for decades will call into question the very lives of astronauts. Perhaps the human body will be able to recover, for example, during braking with gradually increasing gravity. However, the risk of death is still too high and requires a radical solution.

The problem of radiation also remains difficult. Even near the Earth (on board the ISS), astronauts stay no more than six months due to the danger of radiation exposure. The interplanetary spacecraft will have to be equipped with heavy protection, but the question of the effect of radiation on the human body remains. In particular, the risk of cancer, the development of which in zero gravity has been practically not studied. Earlier this year, scientist Krasimir Ivanov from the German Aerospace Center in Cologne published the results of an interesting study of the behavior of melanoma cells (the most dangerous form of skin cancer) in zero gravity. Compared to cancer cells grown in normal gravity, cells grown in zero gravity for 6 and 24 hours were less likely to metastasize. It seems like good news, But only at first glance. The fact is that such “space” cancer can remain dormant for decades, and spread unexpectedly on a large scale when the immune system is disrupted. In addition, the study makes it clear that we still know little about the human body's response to prolonged exposure to space. Today, astronauts, healthy, strong people, spend too little time there to transfer their experience to a long interstellar flight.

The Biosphere 2 project began with a beautiful, carefully selected and healthy ecosystem...

Unfortunately, solving the problem of weightlessness on an interstellar ship is not so simple. The ability available to us to create artificial gravity by rotating the residential module has a number of difficulties. To create earthly gravity, even a wheel with a diameter of 200 m would have to be rotated at a speed of 3 revolutions per minute. With such rapid rotation, the Cariolis force will create loads that are completely unbearable for the human vestibular system, causing nausea and acute attacks of seasickness. The only solution to this problem is the Stanford Tor, developed by scientists at Stanford University in 1975. This is a huge ring with a diameter of 1.8 km, in which 10 thousand astronauts could live. Due to its size, it provides a gravity force of 0.9-1.0 g and quite comfortable living for people. However, even at rotation speeds lower than one revolution per minute, people will still experience mild but noticeable discomfort. Moreover, if such a gigantic living compartment is built, even small shifts in the weight distribution of the torus will affect the rotation speed and cause vibrations of the entire structure.

...and ended in an environmental disaster

In any case, a ship for 10 thousand people is a dubious idea. To create a reliable ecosystem for so many people, you need a huge number of plants, 60 thousand chickens, 30 thousand rabbits and a herd of cattle. This alone can provide a diet of 2,400 calories per day. However, all experiments to create such closed ecosystems invariably end in failure. Thus, during the largest experiment “Biosphere-2” by Space Biosphere Ventures, a network of hermetic buildings with a total area of ​​1.5 hectares was built with 3 thousand species of plants and animals. The entire ecosystem was supposed to become a self-sustaining little “planet” inhabited by 8 people. The experiment lasted 2 years, but after just a few weeks serious problems began: microorganisms and insects began to multiply uncontrollably, consuming oxygen and plants in too large quantities; it also turned out that without wind, the plants became too fragile. As a result of local environmental disaster people began to lose weight, the amount of oxygen decreased from 21% to 15%, and scientists had to violate the conditions of the experiment and supply the eight “cosmonauts” with oxygen and food.

Thus, the creation of complex ecosystems seems to be a misguided and dangerous way to provide oxygen and nutrition to the crew of an interstellar spacecraft. To solve this problem, specially designed organisms with modified genes will be needed that can feed on light, waste and simple substances. For example, large modern workshops for the production of edible algae chlorella can produce up to 40 tons of suspension per day. One completely autonomous bioreactor weighing several tons can produce up to 300 liters of chlorella suspension per day, which is enough to feed a crew of several dozen people. Genetically modified chlorella could not only satisfy the crew's nutritional needs, but also recycle waste, including carbon dioxide. Today, the process of genetically engineering microalgae has become commonplace, and there are numerous examples developed for wastewater treatment, biofuel production, etc.

frozen dream

Almost all of the above problems of manned interstellar flight could be solved by one very promising technology - suspended animation or, as it is also called, cryostasis. Anabiosis is a slowing down of human life processes at least several times. If it is possible to plunge a person into such artificial lethargy, which slows down the metabolism 10 times, then during a 100-year flight he will age in his sleep by only 10 years. This makes it easier to solve problems of nutrition, oxygen supply, mental disorders, and destruction of the body as a result of the effects of weightlessness. In addition, it is easier to protect a compartment with suspended animation chambers from micrometeorites and radiation than a large habitable zone.

Unfortunately, slowing down human life processes is an extremely difficult task. But in nature there are organisms that can hibernate and increase their life expectancy hundreds of times. For example, a small lizard called the Siberian salamander is able to hibernate in difficult times and remain alive for decades, even when frozen into a block of ice with a temperature of minus 35-40°C. There are known cases when salamanders spent about 100 years in hibernation and, as if nothing had happened, thawed out and ran away from surprised researchers. Moreover, the usual “continuous” life expectancy of a lizard does not exceed 13 years. The amazing ability of the salamander is explained by the fact that its liver synthesizes a large amount of glycerol, almost 40% of its body weight, which protects cells from low temperatures.

A bioreactor for growing genetically modified microalgae and other microorganisms can solve the problem of nutrition and waste processing

The main obstacle to immersing a person in cryostasis is water, which makes up 70% of our body. When frozen, it turns into ice crystals, increasing in volume by 10%, which causes the cell membrane to rupture. In addition, as the cell freezes, substances dissolved inside the cell migrate into the remaining water, disrupting intracellular ion exchange processes, as well as the organization of proteins and other intercellular structures. In general, the destruction of cells during freezing makes it impossible for a person to return to life.

However, there is a promising way to solve this problem - clathrate hydrates. They were discovered back in 1810, when British scientist Sir Humphry Davy injected chlorine into water under high pressure and witnessed the formation of solid structures. These were clathrate hydrates - one of the forms of water ice, which contains foreign gas. Unlike ice crystals, clathrate lattices are less solid, do not have sharp edges, but have cavities in which intracellular substances can “hide”. The technology of clathrate suspended animation would be simple: an inert gas, such as xenon or argon, the temperature is just below zero, and cellular metabolism begins to gradually slow down until the person falls into cryostasis. Unfortunately, the formation of clathrate hydrates requires high pressure (about 8 atmospheres) and a very high concentration of gas dissolved in water. How to create such conditions in a living organism is still unknown, although there have been some successes in this area. Thus, clathrates are able to protect cardiac muscle tissue from the destruction of mitochondria even at cryogenic temperatures (below 100 degrees Celsius), as well as prevent damage to cell membranes. There is no talk yet about experiments on clathrate suspended animation in humans, since the commercial demand for cryostasis technologies is small and research on this topic is carried out mainly by small companies offering services for freezing the bodies of the dead.

Flight on hydrogen

In 1960, physicist Robert Bussard proposed the original concept of a ramjet thermonuclear engine, which solves many of the problems of interstellar travel. The idea is to use hydrogen and interstellar dust present in outer space. A spacecraft with such an engine first accelerates on its own fuel, and then unfolds a huge funnel of a magnetic field, thousands of kilometers in diameter, which captures hydrogen from outer space. This hydrogen is used as an inexhaustible source of fuel for a fusion rocket engine.

The use of the Bussard engine promises enormous advantages. First of all, due to the “free” fuel, it is possible to move with a constant acceleration of 1 g, which means that all the problems associated with weightlessness disappear. In addition, the engine allows you to accelerate to enormous speeds - 50% of the speed of light and even more. Theoretically, moving with an acceleration of 1 g, a ship with a Bussard engine can cover a distance of 10 light years in about 12 Earth years, and for the crew, due to relativistic effects, only 5 years of ship time would have passed.

Unfortunately, the path to creating a ship with a Bussard engine faces a number of serious problems that cannot be solved at the current level of technology. First of all, it is necessary to create a giant and reliable trap for hydrogen, generating magnetic fields of gigantic strength. At the same time, it must ensure minimal losses and efficient transportation of hydrogen to the thermonuclear reactor. The very process of the thermonuclear reaction of converting four hydrogen atoms into a helium atom, proposed by Bussard, raises many questions. The fact is that this simplest reaction is difficult to implement in a once-through reactor, since it proceeds too slowly and, in principle, is possible only inside stars.

However, progress in the study of thermonuclear fusion gives hope that the problem can be solved, for example, by using “exotic” isotopes and antimatter as a catalyst for the reaction.

The Siberian salamander can go into suspended animation for decades

So far, research on the topic of the Bussard engine lies exclusively in the theoretical plane. Calculations based on real technologies are required. First of all, it is necessary to develop an engine capable of producing enough energy to power the magnetic trap and maintain the thermonuclear reaction, produce antimatter and overcome the resistance of the interstellar medium, which will slow down the huge electromagnetic “sail”.

Antimatter to the rescue

This may sound strange, but today humanity is closer to creating an antimatter engine than to the intuitive and seemingly simple Bussard ramjet engine.

A fusion reactor using deuterium and tritium can generate 6x1011 J per 1 g of hydrogen - looks impressive, especially considering that it is 10 million times more efficient than chemical rockets. The reaction of matter and antimatter produces approximately two orders of magnitude more energy. When it comes to annihilation, the calculations of scientist Mark Millis and the fruit of his 27 years of work do not look so depressing: Millis calculated the energy costs of launching a spacecraft to Alpha Centauri and found that they would be 10 18 J, i.e. almost the annual electricity consumption of all humanity. But this is only one kilogram of antimatter.

The probe developed by Hbar Technologies will have a thin sail made of carbon fiber coated with uranium 238. When the antihydrogen hits the sail, it will annihilate and create jet thrust

As a result of the annihilation of hydrogen and antihydrogen, a powerful stream of photons is formed, the outflow speed of which reaches a maximum for a rocket engine, i.e. speed of light. This is an ideal indicator that allows achieving very high near-light speeds of a photon-powered spacecraft. Unfortunately, using antimatter as rocket fuel is very difficult, since during annihilation there are bursts of powerful gamma radiation that will kill astronauts. Also, there are no storage technologies yet large quantity antimatter, and the very fact of the accumulation of tons of antimatter, even in space far from Earth, is a serious threat, since the annihilation of even one kilogram of antimatter is equivalent to a nuclear explosion with a power of 43 megatons (an explosion of such force can turn a third of the US territory into a desert). The cost of antimatter is another factor complicating photon-powered interstellar flight. Modern antimatter production technologies make it possible to produce one gram of antihydrogen at a cost of tens of trillions of dollars.

However, large antimatter research projects are bearing fruit. Currently, special positron storage facilities have been created, “magnetic bottles,” which are containers cooled by liquid helium with walls made of magnetic fields. In June of this year, CERN scientists managed to preserve antihydrogen atoms for 2000 seconds. The world's largest antimatter repository is being built at the University of California (USA), which will be able to accumulate more than a trillion positrons. One of the goals of UC scientists is to create portable antimatter tanks that can be used for scientific purposes far from large accelerators. The project has the support of the Pentagon, which is interested in military applications of antimatter, so the world's largest array of magnetic bottles is unlikely to be short of funding.

Modern accelerators will be able to produce one gram of antihydrogen in several hundred years. This is a very long time, so the only way out is to develop a new technology for the production of antimatter or to unite the efforts of all countries on our planet. But even in this case, with modern technologies, it is impossible to even dream of producing tens of tons of antimatter for an interstellar manned flight.

However, everything is not so sad. NASA specialists have developed several designs for spacecraft that could go into deep space with just one microgram of antimatter. NASA believes that improved equipment will make it possible to produce antiprotons at a cost of approximately $5 billion per gram.

The American company Hbar Technologies, with the support of NASA, is developing the concept of unmanned probes driven by an engine running on antihydrogen. The first goal of this project is to create an unmanned spacecraft that could fly to the Kuiper belt on the outskirts of the solar system in less than 10 years. Today fly to such remote points in 5-7 years is impossible; in particular, NASA's New Horizons probe will fly through the Kuiper belt 15 years after launch.

A probe traveling a distance of 250 AU. in 10 years, it will be very small, with a payload of only 10 mg, but it will also need a little antihydrogen - 30 mg. The Tevatron would produce that amount within a few decades, and scientists could test the new engine concept on a real space mission.

Preliminary calculations also show that a small probe could be sent to Alpha Centauri in a similar manner. On one gram of antihydrogen it will reach a distant star in 40 years.

It may seem that all of the above is fantasy and has nothing to do with the near future. Fortunately, this is not the case. While public attention is focused on global crises, failures of pop stars and other current events, epoch-making initiatives remain in the shadows. The NASA space agency has launched the ambitious 100 Year Starship project, which involves the gradual and multi-year creation of a scientific and technological foundation for interplanetary and interstellar flights. This program has no analogues in the history of mankind and should attract scientists, engineers and enthusiasts of other professions from all over the world. A symposium will be held in Orlando, Florida, from September 30 to October 2, 2011, to discuss various spaceflight technologies. Based on the results of such events, NASA specialists will develop a business plan to assist certain industries and companies that are developing technologies that are currently missing, but necessary for future interstellar travel. If NASA's ambitious program is successful, within 100 years humanity will be able to build an interstellar spacecraft, and we will move around the solar system with the same ease as we fly from continent to continent today.

Mikhail Levkevich

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The miracle did not happen, just like at the beginning of the third millennium, when, according to Ray Bradbury, we were supposed to colonize Mars. They often talk about the prophecies of science fiction, but we should not forget about unsuccessful predictions - catastrophically beautiful, but still failures.

Where are the flying cars?

There is equipment under this name, but in reality it is only a hybrid of a car and an airplane. And although the latest designs look futuristic, they are very, very expensive and bear little resemblance to the anti-gravity transport in The Fifth Element. Even further from him other developments similar in design to a helicopter, or at all equipped with a parachute and rear propeller. Here another fantasy rather comes to mind - Carlson, who lives on the roof. Charming, but there is no smell of innovation here.

Another version of individual transport has also appeared in films and computer games - a jetpack. For example, he was shown in " Star Wars" and "RoboCop". But even here it has not reached the point of mass use, and it is unlikely that it will soon - the fuel is only enough for half a minute of flight, and these volumes cost a tidy sum.

We ourselves, apparently, no longer expect miracles so much that we even rejoice at such a creation of the Chinese innovative genius as the “portal bus”. But it is real, just like the monorail in Moscow or Japanese train reaching speeds of up to 603 km/h.

And yet, for the human imagination, boundaries are unacceptable. The science fiction of the past, and simply the fantasies of our ancestors on the theme of the future, acquired a special charm and a new name - “retrofuturism”. A romantic, enthusiastic love for technology and a desire to anticipate future discoveries - this can both touch and inspire today.

Reinvent the wheel

Even before they wanted to take the car into the air, ideas arose to improve it. And the most important thing is to reinvent the wheel! In 1936, a Japanese magazine presented a concept car with balls instead of conventional tires: according to the authors, this idea would provide a smooth ride for the vehicle. Not such a meaningless idea, according to even modern engineers. In 2016, a similar development presented by the American company Goodyear, the largest tire manufacturer.

Gigantomania gave birth to another imaginary miracle of technology - a ship on huge wheels, which, according to the inventor, was supposed to plow the sands of the Sahara and solve the problem of transport in the region. Fighting simooms and other desert scourges, including heat, was included in the design, and the engineer promised “a trip that will turn into a pleasant journey through those places where thousands of generations struggled in vain with the forces of nature and died in an unequal struggle.” This is how the magazine “Around the World” wrote about it in 1927. It is not known how successful the idea was - it still did not come to fruition. Although one can assume that a lot of resources would be spent on the promised air conditioning of such a machine, and even on overcoming sand with gear wheels.

For public use, however, only compact models were offered. In 1947, engineer Eduard Vereycken from Brussels patented a dicycle, a self-propelled stroller consisting of two huge wheels and an open cabin in the middle. The inventor himself claimed that the vehicle could accelerate to 185 km/h - but this is hard to believe. And the safety of passengers remains in question. Only the Swedish equivalent of 1999, authored by Jonas Bjorkholtz, took into account all the design problems. But are using it now for the entertainment of the public only.

Trains were another favorite theme of engineers and dreamers. A lot of hopes were placed on monorails, although they were presented in a rather unusual way - for example, like this or like this. But also regular trains saw much more perfect in the future - comfortable, spacious, and even with a view of the stars.

"Ship of the Desert" according to the 1927 version.

A helicopter for every person!

Where the fantasy unfolded to the fullest was flying transport. The imagination of our ancestors gave birth to saucer-type aircraft, and aircraft with wings at the bottom and turbo engines in the nose, and even submarine aircraft. You can’t mention everything - you can also look at galleries on Reddit or selections by keywords on Pinterest.

But what is especially touching about all these projects is the belief in the universal accessibility of the transport of the future. Man has just conquered the air, and American magazines write: “Helicopters for Everybody!” (“Helicopters to every home!”). And among all these press clippings from almost a century ago, you can see drawings of personal aircraft. Back then, they really only expected upward striving, scientific progress, and the quality of life for everyone from the future.

Can you believe it now when you’re stuck in a traffic jam during rush hour? Or when you're shaking top shelf reserved seat carriage? Clutching a smartphone in your hand, the computing power of which, as you know, is higher than NASA equipment in 1969?

The 21st century has not yet happened - it certainly has not happened in the way that fans of technical progress expected it. But the future, as it turns out, is unpredictable. Slowly, but it is coming - we invite you to familiarize yourself with the futuristic transport of the present.

Today's future

Segway has become one of the most fashionable types of personal transport for Lately, a technologically advanced competitor for bicycles and scooters. What makes it futuristic? You will have to “steer” exclusively with your body: the gyroscope and other sensors in its device react to tilt. And you just have to turn it with a handle or a special column. Control of a hoverboard and unicycle is completely intuitive - it must be said that these are the types that are popular today.

In Naberezhnye Chelny and Moscow, even the police use Segways. In many cities, rental points have appeared where you can temporarily become the owner of a two-wheeled “self-propelled stroller” or a unicycle. On the market, a unicycle can cost up to half a million rubles, but for 20-30 thousand it is quite possible to buy a unicycle that can withstand 15 kilometers without recharging.

Another representative of modern electric transport is the electric car. Having been invented even before the fuel-powered cars we are used to, it still remains a symbol of the future. There are many reasons for this: saving resources, environmental friendliness, and independence from the oil market. Today the easiest way to ride an electric car is, especially for residents of Moscow and St. Petersburg: just contact a taxi service that has such models in its fleet. Yandex.Taxi, for example, recently introduced one of the most advanced electric cars, the Tesla Model S. Its capabilities are impressive: in just a few seconds it can accelerate to 100 km/h, while running almost silently.

The most innovative transport that Russians know is, of course, the Moscow monorail, the “thirteenth metro line”. It began to function fully back in 2008, but even now not all residents of the regions have heard of it. As if straight out of the same retro-futuristic magazine clippings, but adapted to reality, the monorail is a public favorite. The location of the road is also amazing - it is an overpass, that is, the train’s route passes entirely over Moscow. The route runs from Timiryazevskaya station to Sergei Eisenstein Street. True, recently there has been talk about dismantling the track, although the last word for now remains the proposal to turn it into a “tourist site”. As it turned out, this experimental road had serious problems with payback.

This is how, overcoming the difficulties of the modern world structure, the future is still slowly approaching. In the coming decades, will we expect levitating cars for everyone and a teleportation booth in every yard? Hardly. Will the transport of the future look like what we can imagine? Also unlikely. And it's not that bad.

Kuzminova Anastasia Olegovna
Age: 14 years
Place of study: Vologda, Municipal Educational Institution "Secondary School No. 1 with in-depth study of the English language"
City: Vologda
Leaders: Chuglova Anna Bronislavovna, physics teacher in high school at the Municipal Educational Institution "Secondary School No. 1 with in-depth study of the English language";
Kuzminov Oleg Alexandrovich.

Historical research work on the topic:

WHAT IS THE FUTURE FOR AEROSPACE TRANSPORTATION?

Plan:

• 1. Introduction
• 2. Main part
• 2.1 History of the development of aerospace vehicles;
• 2.2 Promising transport ships of the future;
• 2.3 Main directions of use and development of advanced transport systems (PTS);
• 3. Conclusion
• 4. Sources of information.

1. Introduction

For the first time, the space exploration program was formulated by K.E. Tsiolkovsky, in which the key role belongs to space transport systems. Currently, aerospace transport is used for: scientific research of planets and outer space, solving military problems, launching artificial earth satellites, construction and maintenance of orbital stations and production facilities, transporting cargo in space, as well as in the development of space tourism.

Spaceship is an aircraft designed to fly people and transport cargo in outer space. Spaceships for flight in near-Earth orbits are called satellites, and for flights to other celestial bodies - interplanetary ships. At the initial stage, transport spacecraft demonstrated the capabilities of space technology and solving individual applied problems. Currently, they are faced with global practical tasks aimed at the efficient and cost-effective use of space.

To achieve these goals, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Creation of universal, reusable spacecraft;

Use of power plants with more efficient and inexpensive fuels;

Increasing the carrying capacity of the vehicle;

Environmental and biological safety of ships.

Relevance:

The creation of aerospace transport of the future will allow:

- fly over long, practically unlimited distances;

- actively explore near-Earth space and other planets;

- strengthen the defense capability of our state;

- creation of space power plants and production facilities;

- creation of large orbital complexes;

- extract and process minerals of the Moon and other planets;

- solving environmental problems of the Earth;

- launch of artificial earth satellites;

- develop aerospace tourism.

Goals and objectives:

- study the history of the development of spacecraft in Russia and the United States;

- make a comparative analysis of the use of future aerospace transport;

- consider the main areas of use of PTS (advanced transport systems);

- determine the prospects for the development of transport systems.

2. Main part.

2.1 History of the development of aerospace vehicles.

In 1903, Russian scientist K.E. Tsiolkovsky designed a rocket for interplanetary communications.

Under the leadership of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, the world's first R-7 missile (Vostok), which launched the first artificial Earth satellite into space on October 4, 1957, and on April 12, 1961, the spacecraft made the first human flight into space.

The Vostok rockets were replaced by a new generation of disposable spacecraft: Soyuz, Progress and Proton, their design turned out to be simple, reliable and cheap, it has been used until today, and will be used in the near future.

"Union" was very different from the Vostok rocket in its larger size, internal volume and new on-board systems, which made it possible to solve problems associated with the creation of orbital stations. The first rocket launch took place on April 23, 1967. On the basis of the Soyuz spacecraft, a series of transport unmanned cargo spacecraft was created « Progress", which ensured the delivery of cargo to the space station. The first launch took place on January 20, 1978. "Proton"- a heavy-class launch vehicle (LV), designed to launch orbital stations, manned spacecraft, heavy Earth satellites and interplanetary stations into space. The first launch took place on July 16, 1965.

Among American spaceships I would like to note "Apollo"- the only one on this moment spacecraft in history, in which people left low Earth orbit, overcame the gravity of the Earth, successfully landed astronauts on the Moon and returned them to Earth. The spacecraft consists of the main block and the lunar module (landing and takeoff stages), in which astronauts land and take off from the Moon. From 1968 to 1975, 15 spacecraft were launched into the sky.

Back in the 70s, engineers dreamed of creating spaceships of the future that would be able to transport cargo and people into orbit, and then return safely to Earth, and be in service again. An American development was a reusable transport ship "Space Shuttle" which was planned to be used as a shuttle between the Earth and low-Earth orbit, delivering payloads and people back and forth. Flights into space were carried out 135 times from April 12, 1981 to July 21, 2011.

The Soviet-Russian development was a reusable transport winged spacecraft "Buran". An important step towards space exploration was the development of the universal reusable rocket and space system “Energia-Buran”. Which consists of the super-powerful Energia launch vehicle and the Buran orbital reusable spacecraft.

This ship is capable of delivering up to 30 tons of cargo into orbit. The Buran orbital ship is designed to perform transport and military missions, as well as orbital operations in space. After completing the tasks, the ship is capable of independently performing a descent into the atmosphere and a horizontal landing at the airfield. The first flight took place on November 15, 1988. Reusable spacecraft projects are expensive, and currently scientists are improving and reducing operating costs, which will effectively allow this type of spacecraft to be used in the future when creating space production; reusable ships will be cost-effective, since intensive operation of transport systems will be required.

2.2 Promising transport ships of the future.

Currently, the space industry does not stand still, and many new and promising transport ships of the future are being created:

Space rocket complex "Angara"- a family of promising modular launch vehicles under development with reusable oxygen-kerosene engines. The missiles are supposed to be of 4 classes (light, medium, heavy and super-heavy). The power of this rocket is realized using a different number of universal rocket modules (from 1 to 7), depending on the class of the rocket. The first launch of a light-class rocket took place on July 9, 2014. The Angara-5 heavy-class rocket was launched on December 23, 2014.

Advantages of the Angara launch vehicle:

- quick assembly of the rocket from ready-made modules, depending on the required payload;

- rocket launch adapted from Russian cosmodromes;

- the rocket is manufactured entirely from Russian components;

- environmentally friendly fuel is used;

- In the future, it is planned to produce the first stage engine in a reusable version.

Reusable transport systems (“Rus”). The promising manned transport system (PPTS) "Rus" is a multi-purpose manned reusable spacecraft. The PPTS will be made in a modular design of the base ship in the form of functionally complete elements - the return vehicle and the engine compartment. The ship is planned to be wingless, with a reusable return part of a truncated conical shape. The first launch is planned for 2020.

Designed to perform the following tasks:

- ensuring national security;

- unhindered access to space;

- expansion of space production tasks;

- flight and landing on the Moon.

Manned reusable spacecraft "Orion"(USA).

The ship is planned to be wingless, with a reusable return part of a truncated conical shape. Designed to deliver people and cargo into space, as well as for flights to the Moon and Mars. The first launch took place on December 5, 2014. The ship departed to a distance of 5.8 thousand km and then returned back to Earth. Upon return, the ship passed through the dense layers of the atmosphere at a speed of 32 thousand km/h, and the surface temperature of the ship reached 2.2 thousand degrees. The spacecraft passed all tests, which means it is suitable for long-distance flights with people. The start of flights to other planets is planned for 2019-2020.

Reusable transport spacecraft "Dragon Space X"(USA).

Designed to transport payloads and people. The first flight took place on December 1, 2010. On board can be a crew of up to 7 people and 2 tons of payload. Flight duration: from 1 week to 2 years. The transport ship is being successfully operated and is planned to be produced in various modifications. The main disadvantage is the expensive operation of this type of spacecraft. In the near future, Dragon Space X plans to reuse the first and second stages, which will significantly reduce the cost of space launches.

Let's consider promising transport spacecraft that will fly over long distances .

Interplanetary spacecraft "Pilgrim". In the USA, a NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) program has been created to design an interplanetary spacecraft based on a miniature nuclear reactor. It is planned that the propulsion system will be combined and the nuclear reactor will begin to operate when the ship leaves earth orbit. In addition, after the completed mission, the ship will be placed on a trajectory in which it will move away from our land. This type of power plant is very reliable and will not have a negative impact on the earth's environment.

Our country is a world leader in the field of space energy. Currently being developed transport and energy module based on a megawatt class nuclear power plant. Almost the entire scientific potential of Russia is working on this program. The launch of a spacecraft with a nuclear power plant is planned for 2020. This type of power plant can operate for a long time without refueling. Transport ships with nuclear power plants (nuclear power plants) will be able to fly over ultra-long, practically unlimited distances, and will allow the exploration of deep space.

Comparative table of promising spacecraft.

Spaceship		A country	Range of flight	Engine	Load capacity	First launch date
Space rocket complex "Angara"	Launch vehicle (reusable)			Oxygen-kerosene	From 1.5 to 35 t
Reusable transport systems "Rus"	Manned, reusable		planetary; Moon, Mars	fuel
"Orion"	Manned, reusable		Moon, Mars
« Dragon Space X»	Manned, reusable
"Pilgrim"	Reusable		planetary	Nuclear, combined
Transport and energy module	reusable		long distances	Nuclear, combined

The most promising transport ship of the future is a ship with a nuclear power plant, because it has a power-hungry engine and can fly extremely long distances. The nuclear system is 3 times superior to conventional installations. After resolving issues with safe operation, this type of ship will be able to make a breakthrough in the study of outer space.

2.3 Main directions of use and development of PTS (advanced transport systems)

The main directions of use of PTS
Scientific		Industrial				Tourist	Military
Exploration of space and other planets	Exploration and scientific work in space	Launching cargo and Earth satellites into low-Earth orbit	Construction and maintenance of orbital complexes	Creation and maintenance of space power plants and production facilities	Moving payloads from other planets

To create the aerospace transport of the future, it is necessary to solve the following problems:

- vehicle power plants must be equipped with more capacious energy sources compared to the fuel currently used (nuclear power plants, plasma and ion engines);

- promising power plants should be modular, depending on the flight range. Power plants must be of low, medium and high power. Small - for servicing near-Earth orbits, medium - transportation of cargo to the Moon and other near planets, large - for flights of interplanetary complexes to Mars and other distant planets. Interplanetary manned complexes over long distances, due to heavy weight, must be assembled from modules in low-Earth orbit. The docking of these modules should be done automatically, without human intervention.

- promising systems must have a high degree of reliability to ensure environmental safety;

Spacecraft must operate in manned and unmanned modes, with the ability to be remotely controlled from Earth. To carry out manned flights, interplanetary spacecraft must have all types of protection for the normal existence of all crew members.

3. Conclusion

The paper provides examples of the latest promising developments of transport systems in Russia and the USA, which will be built on the following principles:

Universal modular design;

Use of energy efficient power plants;

Possibility of assembling modules in space;

High degree of vehicle automation;

Possibility of remote control;

Environmental Safety;

Safe operation of the ship and crew members.

After solving these problems, PTS will make it possible to actively explore outer space, create production in space, develop space tourism, and solve scientific and military problems.

Despite the fact that we managed to collect a lot of information, we would like to continue the work in the following areas:

Application of new types of fuel on PTS;

Improving systems for the safe operation of spaceships of the future.

4. Sources of information:

1. Angara - launch vehicle, - Wikipedia - free Internet encyclopedia, https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/angara_(launch rocket), accessed November 29, 2014;

2. Gryaznov G.M. Space nuclear energy and new technologies (Notes of the director), -M: FSUE "TsNIIatominform", 2007;

3. Emelyanenkov A. Tug into weightlessness, - Russian newspaper, http://www.rg.ru/2012/10/03/raketa.html, access date 12/01/2014;

4. Korolev Sergey Pavlovich, - Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia, https://ru.wikipedua.org/wiki/Korolev,_Sergey Pavlovich, access date November 28, 2014;

5. Spaceship "Orion", - Lens X, beyond the visible, http://www.objectiv-x.ru/kosmicheskie-korabli-buduschego/kosmicheskiy_korabl_orion.html, access date - 12/02/2014;

6. Spaceship Rus, - Lens X, beyond the visible, http://www.objectiv-x.ru/kosmicheskie-korabli-buduschego/kosmicheskij-korabl-rus.html, access date 12/02/2014;

7. Legostaev V.P., Lopota V.A., Sinyavsky V.V. Prospects and efficiency of the use of space nuclear power plants and nuclear electric rocket propulsion systems, - Space technology and technology No. 1 2013, Rocket and Space Corporation "Energia" named after. S.P. Koroleva, http://www.energia.ru/ktt/archive/2013/01-01.pdf, access date November 23, 2014;

8. Promising manned transport system, -Wikipedia - free Internet encyclopedia, https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/promising_manned_trinaport_system, accessed November 24, 2014;

HORIZONS OF SCIENCE

Aerospace

transport to V L VI11R GP

With a powerful push, the rocket rises vertically from the launch pad and goes skyward... This has been common since the 1960s. the picture may soon sink into oblivion. Disposable space systems and “shuttles” should be replaced by a new generation of devices - aerospace aircraft that will have the ability to take off and land horizontally, like conventional airliners

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3. KRAUSE. A. M. KHARITONOV

KRAUSE Egon - Professor Emeritus, SP 973 to 1998. - Director of the Aerodynamic Institute of the Rhine-Westphalian Technical High School (GOASH^" (Ax^n, Germany). Laureate of the Max Dlanck Society Prize, Honorary Doctor of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences ~

XAPMTOHCJP Anatoly. Mikhailovich - Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professional Researcher at the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics named after. S. A. Khristianovich SB RAS (Novosibirsk). Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, laureate of the USSR Council of Ministers Prize (1985). Author and co-author of about 150 scientific works and 2 patents

The further development of astronautics is determined by the need for intensive operation of space stations, the development of global communication and navigation systems, and environmental monitoring on a planetary scale. For these purposes, the leading countries of the world are developing reusable aerospace aircraft (AVS), which will significantly reduce the cost of delivering goods and people into orbit. These will be systems characterized by capabilities [the most relevant of which are the following:

Reusable use for launching industrial and scientific-technical cargo into orbit with a relatively short period of time between repeated flights;

Return of damaged and spent structures littering space;

Rescue of crews of orbital stations and spacecraft in emergency situations;

Urgent reconnaissance of areas of natural disasters and catastrophes anywhere in the world.

In countries with developed aerospace

Technologies have made great strides in the field of high flight speeds, which determine the potential for the creation of a wide range of hypersonic air-breathing aircraft. There is every reason to believe that in the future manned aircraft will master speeds from Mach numbers M = 4-6 to M = 12-15 (for now the record holds M = 6.7, set back in 1967 by the American experimental aircraft X-15 with a rocket engine).

If speak about civil aviation, then mastering high speeds is extremely important for intensifying passenger transportation and business connections. Hypersonic passenger aircraft with a Mach number of 6 will be able to provide a low-fatigue flight duration (no more than 4 hours) for international routes with a range of about 10 thousand km, such as Europe (Paris) - South America(Sao Paulo), Europe (London) - India, USA (New York) - Japan. Let us remember that the flight time of the supersonic Concorde from New York to Paris was about 3 hours, and the Boeing 747 spends about 6.5 hours on this route. Airplanes of the future with Mach 10

DICTIONARY OF AERODYNAMIC TERMS

Mach number - a parameter characterizing how many times the speed of an aircraft (or gas flow) is greater than the speed of sound Hypersonic speed - a loose term for designating a speed with a Mach number exceeding 4 5 Reynolds number - a parameter characterizing the relationship between inertial forces and viscous forces in stream

Angle of attack - the inclination of the wing plane to the flight line Shock wave (shock wave) - a narrow region of flow in which a sharp drop in the speed of a supersonic gas flow occurs, leading to an abrupt increase in density Rarefaction wave - a region of flow in which a sharp decrease in the density of the gaseous medium occurs

Scheme of the model of the two-stage aerospace system E1_AS-EOE. These devices will take off and land horizontally, like conventional airplanes. It is assumed that the length of the full-scale configuration will be 75 m, and the wingspan will be 38 m. According to: (Raible, Jacobe, 2005)

in 4 hours they will be able to cover 16-17 thousand km, making a non-stop flight, for example, from the USA or Europe to Australia.

GTaya maoTai

Hypersonic aircraft require new technologies that are completely different from those inherent in modern aircraft and vertically lifting spacecraft. Of course, rocket

the engine produces great thrust, but it consumes huge quantities of fuel, and besides, the rocket must carry an oxidizer on board. Therefore, the use of rockets in the atmosphere is limited to short-term flights.

The desire to solve these complex technical problems has led to the development of various concepts for space transportation systems. A fundamental direction that is being actively researched by the world's leading aerospace companies is single-stage VCS. Such an aerospace aircraft, taking off from a conventional airfield, can provide delivery to low-Earth orbit of a payload amounting to about 3% of the take-off weight. Another concept for reusable systems is two-stage devices. In this case, the first stage is equipped with an air-breathing engine, and the second is orbital, and the separation of stages is carried out in the range of Mach numbers from 6 to 12 at altitudes of about 30 km.

In 1980-1990 VKS projects were developed in the USA (NASP), England (HOTOL), Germany (Sänger), France (STS-2000, STAR-H), Russia (VKS NII-1, Spiral, Tu-2000). In 1989, on the initiative of the German Research Society (DFG), joint research began between three German centers:

RWTH Aachen, Technical University of Munich and University of Stuttgart. These DFG-sponsored centers have carried out a long-term research program involving the study of fundamental issues required for the design of space transportation systems, such as general engineering, aerodynamics, thermodynamics, flight mechanics, propulsion, materials, etc. Much of the work on experimental aerodynamics has been carried out in collaboration with the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics named after. S. A. Khristianovich SB RAS. The organization and coordination of all research work was carried out by a committee, which for ten years was headed by one of the authors of this article (E. Krause). We present to the reader some of the most illustrative visual materials illustrating some of the results obtained in the framework of this project in the field of aerodynamics.

The flight of the two-stage ELAC-EOS system must cover a wide range of speeds: from breaking the sound barrier (M = 1) to the separation of the orbital stage (M = 7) and its entry into low-Earth orbit (M = 25). By: (Raible, Jacobe, 2005)

Sound barrier Mach number

SCIENCE HORIZONS

Large model ELAC 1 (over 6 m long) in the test section of the German-Dutch DNW low-speed wind tunnel. By: (Raible, Jacobe, 2005)

Aaóóñóó"i áí^áóáy ñeñóálá ELAC-EOS

For research, the concept of a two-stage aerospace vehicle was proposed (the carrier stage was called ELAC in German, the orbital stage was called EOS). Fuel - liquid hydrogen. It was assumed that the full-scale ELAC configuration would have a length of 75 m, a wingspan of 38 m and a large g/goal sweep. The length of the EOS stage is 34 m, and the wingspan is 18 m. The orbital stage has an elliptical nose, a central body with a semi-cylindrical upper side and one fin in the plane of symmetry. On the upper surface of the first stage there is a recess in which the orbital stage is located during climb. Although it is shallow, at hypersonic speeds during separation (M = 7) it has a significant effect on the flow characteristics.

To carry out theoretical and experimental studies, several models of the carrier and orbital stages at a scale of 1:150 were designed and manufactured. For testing at low speeds in the German-Dutch wind tunnel DNW, a large model of the studied configuration was made on a scale of 1:12 (length more than 6 m, weight about 1600 kg).

Aegóáeegáóey ñaáSógaóeá

Flight from supersonic speed represents great difficulty for the researcher, since it is accompanied by the formation of shock waves, or shock waves, and the aircraft in such a flight goes through several flow regimes (with different local structures), accompanied by an increase in heat flows.

This problem was studied both experimentally and numerically in the ELAC-EOS project. Most of the experiments were carried out in aerodynamic

Oil-soot pattern of streamlines on the surface of the ELAC 1 model, obtained in the T-313 wind tunnel of the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics SB RAS. From: (Krause et al., 1999)

Comparison of the results of numerical simulation of vortex structures on the leeward side of the E1.AC 1 model (right) and experimental visualization using the laser knife method (left). The results of the numerical calculation were obtained by solving the Navier-Stokes equations for laminar flow at Mach number M = 2, Reynolds number E = 4 10e and angle of attack a = 24°. The calculated vortex patterns are similar to those observed experimentally; there are differences in the transverse shapes of individual vortices. Note that the oncoming flow is perpendicular to the picture plane. From: (ECotber et al., 1996)

chemical pipe T-313 ITAM SB RAS in Novosibirsk. The free-stream Mach number in these experiments varied in the range 2< М < 4, число Рейнольдса - 25 106 < Ие < 56 106, а г/гол атаки - в диапазоне - 3° < а < 10°. При этих параметрах измерялось распределение давлений, аэродинамические силы и моменты, а также выполнялась визуализация линий тока на поверхности модели.

The results obtained, among other things, clearly demonstrate the formation of vortices on the leeward side. Panoramic patterns of flows on the surface of the model were visualized by coating with special liquids or an oil and soot mixture. A typical example of oil soot imaging shows surface streamlines curling inward from the leading edge of the wing and converging into a line oriented approximately in the direction of flow. Other stripes directed towards the center line of the model are also observed.

These clear traces on the leeward side characterize a cross-flow, the three-dimensional structure of which can be observed using the laser knife method. As the angle of attack increases, the air flow flows from the windward surface of the wing to the leeward one, forming a complex vortex system. Note that primary vortices with reduced pressure in the core make a positive contribution to the lifting force of the apparatus. The laser knife method itself is based on photographing coherent radiation scattered

Vortex bubble in transition state

Fully developed vortex spiral

The vortex decay processes on the leeward side of the ELAC 1 configuration were visualized by injecting fluorescent paint. From: (Stromberg, Limberg, 1993)

¡I HORIZONS OF SCIENCE

on solid or liquid microparticles introduced into the flow, the concentration distribution of which is determined by the structure of the flows under study. A coherent light source is formed in the form of a thin plane of light, which, in fact, gives the name to the method. Interestingly, from the point of view of providing the necessary image contrast, microparticles of ordinary water (fog) turn out to be very effective.

Under certain conditions, vortex cores can collapse, which reduces the lift of the wing. This process, called vortex shedding, develops

“bubble” or “spiral” type, the visual differences between which are demonstrated by a photograph taken using an injection of fluorescent paint. Typically, the bubble regime of vortex shedding precedes the spiral-type decay.

Useful information on the spectra of supersonic flow aircraft gives the shadow Toepler method. With its help, inhomogeneities in gas flows are visualized, with shock waves and rarefaction waves being especially clearly visible.

Main lens lenses Projection lens Screen (camera)

Light source V g H Heterogeneity Foucault knife "I

SHADOW TEPLER METHOD

Back in 1867, the German scientist A. Tepler proposed a method for detecting optical inhomogeneities in transparent media, which has still not lost its relevance in science and technology. In particular, it is widely used to study the distribution of air flow density when flowing around aircraft models in wind tunnels.

The optical diagram of one of the implementations of the method is shown in the figure. A beam of rays from a slit light source is directed by a lens system through the object under study and focused on the edge of an opaque screen (the so-called Foucault knife). If there are no optical inhomogeneities in the object under study, then all rays are blocked by the knife. If there are inhomogeneities, the rays will be scattered, and some of them, deflected, will pass above the edge of the knife. By placing a projection lens behind the plane of the Foucault knife, you can project these rays onto the screen (direct them into the camera) and obtain an image of inhomogeneities.

The simplest scheme considered allows us to visualize density gradients of the medium perpendicular to the edge of the knife, while density gradients along a different coordinate lead to a displacement of the image along the edge and do not change the illumination of the screen. There are various modifications of the Toepler method. For example, instead of a knife, an optical filter is installed, consisting of parallel strips of different colors. Or a circular aperture with colored sectors is used. In this case, in the absence of inhomogeneities, rays from different points pass through the same place on the diaphragm, so the entire field is painted the same color. The appearance of inhomogeneities causes the deviation of rays that pass through different sectors, and images of points with different light deviations are painted in the corresponding colors.

Head shock

Fan of rarefaction waves

Shock shock

This shadow pattern of the flow around the EbAC 1 model was obtained using the Toepler optical method in a supersonic wind tunnel in Aachen. By: (Nepe! e? a/., 1993)

Shadow photograph of the flow around the E1.AC 1 model with an air intake in a hypersonic shock tube (M = 7.3) in Aachen. The beautiful rainbow flashes in the lower right part of the image represent chaotic flows inside the air intake. By: (Olivier et al., 1996)

Theoretical distribution of Mach numbers (velocities) during flow around a two-stage configuration E1_AC-EOE (free-stream Mach number M = 4.04). By: (Breitsamter et al., 2005)

Good agreement was observed between the calculated and experimental data, which confirms the reliability of the numerical solution in predicting hypersonic flows. An example of a calculated picture of the distribution of Mach numbers (velocities) in the flow during the separation process is presented on this page. Shock shocks and local rarefaction are visible on the obetZh^gFenya. In reality, the rear part of the EBAC 1C configuration will not have a vacuum, since it will house a hypersonic ramjet engine.

Separating the carrier and orbital stages is one of the most difficult problems considered during the work on the ELAC-EOS project. For reasons of maneuvering safety, this stage of the flight requires especially careful study. Numerical studies of its * various phases were carried out at the SFB 255 center at the Technical University of Munich, and all experimental work was carried out at the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics SB RAS. Tests in the T-313 supersonic wind tunnel included visualization of flow around the full configuration and measurements of aerodynamic characteristics and surface pressures during stage separation.

The ELAC 1C lower stage model differed from the original ELAC 1 version in that it had a shallow compartment in which the orbital stage should be located during takeoff and climb. Computer simulations were carried out at a free-stream Mach number M = 4.04, Reynolds number -Re = 9.6 106 and zero angle of attack of the EOS model.

In general, we can say that research into the aerodynamic concept of the two-stage ÜiELAC-EOS systems, initiated by the German Research Society DFG, has been successful. As a result of an extensive complex of theoretical and experimental work in which they participated scientific centers Europe, Asia, America and Australia, a complete calculation of the configuration capable of horizontal take-off and landing at a standard airport was carried out, aerodynamic problems were solved

missions of flight at low, supersonic and especially hypersonic speeds.

It is now clear that the creation of a promising aerospace transport requires further detailed research on the development of hypersonic air-breathing engines that operate reliably in a wide range of flight speeds, high-precision control systems for the processes of stage separation and landing of the orbital module, new high-temperature materials, etc. . Solving all these complex scientific and technical problems is impossible without the combined efforts of scientists different countries. And the experience of this project only confirms: long-term international cooperation is becoming an integral element of aerospace research.

Literature

Kharitonov A.M., Krause E., Limberg W. et al.//J. Experiments in Fluids. - 1999. - V. 26. - P. 423.

Brodetsky M.D., Kharitonov A.M., Krause E. et al. //J. Experiments in Fluids. - 2000. - V. 29. - P. 592.

Brodetsky M.D., Kharitonov A.M., Krause E. et al. //Proc. at X Int. Conference on the Methods of Aemphysical Research. Novosibirsk. - 2000. -V.1.- P. 53.

Krause E., Brodetsky M.D., Kharitonov A.M. //Proc. at WFAM Congress. Chicago, 2000.

Brodetsky M.D., Krause E., Nikiforov S.B. and others // PMTF. - 2001. - T. 42. - P. 68.

Historical research work on the topic

« What is the future of aerospace transportation?»

SpaceX— The road to the future

About the history and development prospects of the companySpaceX

Scientific adviser: Gibatov Ildar Rafisovich, history teacher, MOBU Secondary School No. 2, village. Bizhbulyak.

Research hypothesis: in the future it will be possible to use SpaceX projects as universal aerospace transport.

Goal of the work: find out whether Space X projects can be used to develop aerospace transport.

Tasks:

1. Study the history of the company;
2. Explore the evolution of SpaceX launch vehicles;
3. Explore project prospects

Research methods:

1. Study and analysis of literature and relevant Internet sites;
2. Analysis of company reports;
3. Comparison with domestic ideas.

Object of study: private space company Space Exploration Technologies

ProjectSpaceX.Project history

By studying literature and sources on the Internet, I learn about the SpaceX project, its founder, and the history of the company. In the course of research, I study its launch vehicles and bring them specifications, I analyze the reasons for unsuccessful launches.

Prospects for launch vehiclesSpaceX

Continuing to get acquainted with SpaceX, I found out that the next development of its rockets is the Falcon Heavy launch vehicle - a super-heavy class rocket, it will be capable of delivering a fully loaded Dragon spacecraft to Mars or Jupiter. I also find out what will be used in it unique system cross fuel supply.

Engines developed in-houseSpaceX

SpaceX uses its own Merlin engines in its launch vehicles, which operate according to an open cycle design. This scheme is simple, reliable, and inexpensive to create and use; it also has great potential for the future and promotes the use of reusable systems. I present a comparison of the engine thrust with others and their cost, and calculate the thrust-to-weight ratio of the engine.

Reusable - reusable

While researching the company's launch vehicles and engines, I learned about SpaceX's re-entry first stage launch vehicle project. I have found that this method reduces startup costs by ~60%. And the company can invest these funds in its future developments and prospects.

In 2004, the company began developing the Dragon spacecraft, which made its first flight in December 2010. Dragon is unique in its ability to return cargo from the ISS to Earth and is the first ship produced by a private company to dock with the ISS. I find out that in the future of the ship there is a unique mission “Mars 2020”.

Conclusion

Based on all the materials presented, I came to the conclusion that in the future it will be possible to use the SpaceX project for aerospace transport.

List of used literature

1. Ashley Vance - Elon Musk. Tesla, SpaceX and the road to the future. (Publisher: Olimp-Business; 2015; ISBN 978-5-9693-0307-2, 978-0-06-230123-9, 978-59693-0330-0)
2. V.A. Afanasyev - Experimental testing of spacecraft (Publishing house: M.: MAI Publishing House; 1994; ISBN: 5-7035-0318-3)
3. V. Maksimovsky - “Angara-Baikal. ABOUT reusable rocket booster module»
4. Official website of SpaceX - http://spacex.com
5. Official SpaceX YouTube channel - https://goo.gl/w6x3gW
6. Material from Wikipedia - https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX