Traveling The heir to the throne completed his education with his trips around Russia and abroad. The journey lasted from May 1 to December 12, 1837. During the trip, Alexander wrote 35 letters to his father. These letters contain many impressions and reflections about the history of Russia,

Phoenicia

Ancient Phenicia occupied a coastal strip along the northern part of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, bordered on the east by the Lebanese Mountains, which in some places approached almost close to the shore. The uniqueness of the natural conditions of Phenicia is reflected even in the names of the most important populated places. So, for example, the name of the city of Byblos (in Phoenician sounds like Gebal) means “mountain”, the city of Tyre (in Phoenician - Tsur) means “rock”. The opportunity to engage in arable farming was limited due to the lack of good lands, but those that were available could still be used quite intensively, since the sea winds brought heavy rains. Gardening prevailed here; olives, dates, and grapes were cultivated. The ancient Phoenicians were also involved in fishing, which is natural for a sea people. It is no coincidence that the name of one of the Phoenician cities is Sidon, which means “place of fishing.” The forests of Mount Lebanon, which abounded in cedar and other valuable species, represented great wealth for the country.

The name “Phoenician” is found already in Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions of the mid-3rd millennium BC. in the form of “fenech”. Later, the ancient Greeks used the word “foinikes”, which meant “reddish”, “swarthy”. This is where the name of the country comes from. In Semitic sources there is no special name for Phenicia and the Phoenicians. The name Kinakhhi, or according to the Greek text of the Bible, Canaan, which some scholars explain as “the land of purple dye,” has a much broader meaning, since it also implies Palestine and partly Syria. The Egyptians also used similar general designations for these countries.

Mid-2nd millennium BC. dates back to the rapid flourishing of Phoenician cities and their transformation into the trading metropolis of the then slave-owning world. Phoenician pot-bellied ships became a moving bridge between countries. The ships sailed in the direction of all four cardinal directions and returned back, heavily loaded with treasures.

The Phoenicians were primarily interested in sales markets and sources of raw materials. The enormous wealth that the black-bearded and purple-faced merchants extracted from maritime trade made them more and more determined and courageous. Often they were on the road for three years, and sometimes longer. From time to time, shipwrecks brought the Phoenicians to foreign shores. Perhaps this is how Carthage, so far from Western Asia, was founded, which at the beginning was called Kart-Hadasht, which translated from Phoenician means New town. Phoenicia sea travel colonization

The Phoenicians were a people who were prone to constantly gesticulating, who loved to sing and talk a lot. They were also very ruthless ancient human hunters. Homer in his poems characterized them as follows: “Men who are famous for their ships, and cunning, and deceit, and greed, who remember the black sailing ships with countless sparkling trinkets.” People have always gotten into trouble with this shiny tinsel, whether it was flags, beads or bells. Getting ready to sail home and not long before the anchors were raised, they lured aboard the ship local residents, in order to later sell them as live goods in slave markets.

Phoenician colonization of the Mediterranean

In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The Phoenician states establish and everywhere strengthen their actual power and dominance in the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean Sea is a vast inland sea that is located between the three largest continents of the Eastern Hemisphere: Europe in the north and west, Asia in the east and Africa in the south. It owes its name to its geographical location. In the west, the Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar. In the northeast, its bay - the Aegean Sea - is connected by the narrow Dardanelles Strait with the Sea of ​​Marmara, through it and the Bosporus Strait - with the Black Sea, and through the Black Sea and the Kerch Strait - with Sea of ​​Azov. The long and narrow Apennine Peninsula (Italy) in the north and the protrusion of the African coast in the area of ​​​​modern Tunisia in the south divide the Mediterranean Sea into eastern and western parts. The Western Mediterranean ends with the Iberian Peninsula. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, the dominant position is occupied by the Balkan Peninsula (Greece), which is separated from the Apennine Peninsula by the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, and from Asia Minor by the Aegean and Marmara Seas.

Numerous large and small islands are scattered throughout the Mediterranean Sea. In the Western Mediterranean are the largest islands of Corsica and Sardinia, as well as Sicily, which are a continuation of the Apennine Peninsula. The Balearic Islands are located off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The Balkan Peninsula with its rugged shores is surrounded by a large island world. The rugged coastline, the abundance of bays and bays, islands, along with favorable climatic conditions contributed to the early development of navigation. The favorable climatic conditions of the Mediterranean contribute to the cultivation of a wide variety of cultivated plants, including various cereals and horticultural crops. Garden crops in ancient times, as now, were grown everywhere: grapes and olive trees. The hot and humid climate of the Mediterranean was ideal for the cultivation of these crops. Three to four thousand years ago, the development of gardening was also facilitated by the fact that the climate was more humid than it is now. The Mediterranean at that time was replete with vast forests, which were subsequently cut down. The Mediterranean countries were rich in mineral resources. Even in ancient times, copper ore was obtained from the islands of Cyprus and Sardinia and from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain); iron ore from Asia Minor, from the island of Elba and from Spain; silver was mined in Asia Minor, Greece, and Spain. The development of bronze production required the mining of tin, and it was imported from Spain or the British Isles. Beautiful multi-colored marble was available in Greece and Italy. In many places there were large deposits of high-quality clay, which favored the flourishing of pottery production.

Relations with the countries of the Eastern and Western Mediterranean were of great importance for Western Asia. The demand for copper, tin, and iron increased. For the Mediterranean countries, connections with advanced cultural areas in Western Asia were no less important. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. this connection was carried out mainly by Phoenician sailors. Not limiting themselves to exchange, they, as already indicated, were also engaged in the slave trade, thus turning the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea into an additional source from which slaves came for the ancient slave states. The creation of Phoenician colonies on the Mediterranean coasts also dates back to this time. Their main goal was to organize exchange, however, in some cases they were transformed into completely independent agricultural slave states. The ruling class of the Phoenician states, fearing an uprising of slaves and the poor, sought to ensure that large quantity"restless elements". From the writings of the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (IV century BC) we know about the measures that the nobility used for this purpose in Carthage: “Although the structure of the Carthaginian state is marked by the nature of the rule of the propertied, the Carthaginians successfully escape from the indignation of side of the people in that they give them the opportunity to get rich. Namely, they constantly exile certain parts of the people to cities and regions subject to Carthage.

With this, the Carthaginians heal their political system and give it stability.” Thus, the Carthaginians learned the art of healing their political system from the metropolis - Tire, which from time to time (maybe from the end of the 2nd millennium BC and, in any case, from the beginning of the 1st millennium) repeatedly expelled and other Phoenician city-states, several thousand citizens each, so that they created their colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Such Phoenician colonies, the purpose of which was to secure part of the Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the island of Cyprus, where the Phoenicians firmly established themselves in the 2nd millennium BC. But in the northern part of the Eastern Mediterranean, local sailors played an important role - Greeks, Lycians, Carians. In the VIII - VI centuries. BC. the Greeks begin to develop their own colonization policy. The Phoenicians therefore paid their main attention to the coasts that dominated the main sea routes from the Eastern to the Western Mediterranean, especially on the coast of Africa; the Phoenicians also penetrated into Sicily and the island of Malta. Phoenician colonies and individual points were formed on the coast of Spain, as well as on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean (Gades, now Cadiz). From the VIII - VII centuries. BC. There are numerous references to the distant and then little-known country of Tarshish - apparently Tartessus in Spain, beyond the Strait of Gibraltar.

Sea voyages of the Phoenicians

It is known that Pharaoh Necho (612-576 BC), to organize foreign trade and navigation, turned to the services of the Phoenicians, whose state was located on the forest-rich territory of modern Lebanon and Syria, and whose numerous fleet also served as a support for the Egyptian pharaohs.

Phenicia had very favorable natural conditions for the construction of a fleet: convenient bays and river mouths on the sea coast, which could serve as a refuge for the fleet in stormy weather; abundance of ship timber - forests grew near the Mediterranean coast on the slopes Lebanese mountains, and they were dominated by the famous Lebanese cedar and oak, as well as other valuable tree species. The heyday of shipbuilding and maritime glory of Phenicia is noted in the history of the Mediterranean during the period 1200-700. BC. According to many historical accounts, the Phoenician maritime empire relied on the developed coastal infrastructure of its seaports and fleet supply bases, and the military and merchant ships had an unlimited navigation area. The Phoenicians can rightfully be judged as great navigators - they had colonies along the entire coast of the Mediterranean Sea, they were known far beyond the Strait of Gibraltar, including on the English islands and even beyond the Cape of Good Hope..

Phoenician maritime merchant ship. Like the Viking longships, the fuller ships of the Phoenicians were also capable of being held by their lag to a storm wave in a passive mode of navigation. In this mode, the pitching motion is damped by the collapse of the frames at the ends, and the large lateral stability the hull allows you to track the surface of the wave during very sharp roll, which ensures non-flooding in the middle part of the hull

When sailing short distances, the Phoenicians used mainly light merchant ships that had oars and a straight rack sail. The ships intended for long voyage, and warships. Large merchant ships had waterproof decks.

On the warships of the Phoenicians, the use of a bow underwater bulb was noted, which testified to the ability of these ships to maintain speed without surfing the waves, with increased flooding of the bow decks. The size of high-speed ships - galleys - sometimes allowed the use of two or three rows of oars (biremes and triremes), which made the navy truly all-weather and capable of active maneuvering on dangerous coastal fairways. Since then, a generalized definition of a high-speed rowing vessel as a galley has been established in all the languages ​​of the Mediterranean peoples.

The maritime glory of the Phoenicians speaks of the good seaworthiness of their ships and merchant ships, quite sufficient for long voyages. Enriching themselves at the expense of their colonies, Phoenician and Carthaginian sailors gradually began to go far beyond the Mediterranean Sea. During this period of heyday of Phoenician and Carthaginian navigation, the sea route became a means of communication between the three continents of the Mediterranean and more distant countries that were outside Gibraltar.

Exceptional courage was required in those days in order to, having passed the Pillars of Hergules, as the Strait of Gibraltar was called in ancient times, leave the Mediterranean Sea for the Atlantic Ocean, rise into the stormy Bay of Biscay, and sail from there further north. It must be borne in mind that through the Strait of Gibraltar, whose depth exceeds 300 m, there is a strong surface current from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, since due to more intense evaporation of water, the level of the Mediterranean Sea is constantly falling, so that only the influx of water from the Atlantic allows him stabilize him. The situation is more complicated. In the Strait of Gibraltar there is also a deep current directed into the ocean. How amazed were the tribes that then inhabited the Western European coast when ships of unprecedented size, having removed their purple sails, anchored near their settlements. People came down from them, selling luxury goods that made the hearts of more than just women beat faster. In return, they asked for tin, food, and young blondes, which was very valuable at that time, since, among other things, these people replenished the harems of their trading partners from the East. Through exchange, they also received on the Atlantic coast the amber that was so highly valued at that time, delivered here by dry route from the Baltic States. Carthaginian sailors also repeatedly sailed along the western coast of Africa.

The description of one of these sea expeditions of the brave Carthaginian sailors is also known to us in the Greek translation. This is a journey called Hanno's journey, dating from around the 6th or 5th century. BC. Although the expedition of the Carthaginian sailor is described as an entertaining adventure novel, nevertheless, all of its information, according to the judgment of authoritative historians, corresponds to reality. We can trace the expedition's route step by step on a map, comparing data about this journey with what we know about the geography of the west coast of Africa. Using the help of the Egyptians, and sometimes Israel and Judea, the Phoenician cities sent sea expeditions not only to the northwest and southwest, but also to the then less accessible south. In this case, the Phoenician ships probably even reached the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea. One such sea voyage is well written about in the Bible, which tells of an expedition to the gold-rich country of Ophir, organized by Hiram, king of Tire, and Solomon, king of Israel. But the most ambitious undertaking must be considered the maritime expedition of the Phoenicians, which they carried out on behalf of the Egyptian king Necho at the end of the 7th century. BC. Within three years they circumnavigated Africa and returned through the “pillars of Melqart,” accomplishing this remarkable feat more than two thousand years before Vasco da Gama.

Phenicia is one of the ancient countries, which was located on the Mediterranean coast, in the territory of modern Syria, Israel and Lebanon. The population of the country managed to build a powerful civilization, the basis of which was maritime trade and craft.

Culture of Ancient Phenicia

The culture and science of the ancient Phoenicians were also developed at a very high level: they had their own alphabet, which was eventually adopted by the Greeks. The peak of the Phoenician civilization dates back to approximately 1 thousand BC. AD

IN Ancient Phenicia there were no good fertile lands; constant rains due to the Mediterranean climate also did not allow the Phoenicians to engage in farming. The only way out for the inhabitants of the country was to engage in navigation, which significantly expanded trade relations with other peoples, and the abundance of forests allowed them to build ships on their own.

Shipping and trade relations

The Phoenicians built very strong ships that were not afraid of storms or storms. It was the Phoenicians who first modeled and built ships with a keel, equipped with planking on the sides of the vessel - this significantly increased their speed.

Their ships were also equipped with special compartments for transporting cargo, which were located above the deck. Thanks to the strength of their ships, the Phoenicians had the opportunity to enter the Atlantic Ocean, which at that time was not available to many Mediterranean sailors.

The Phoenicians' maritime strategy was striking in its thoughtfulness: they built special bays along the coast so that in the event of a storm, ships could remain safe. With the help of navigation, the ancient Phoenicians were able to establish their colonies in places where their ships could reach.

One of the most famous cities colonized by Phoenician sailors was Carthage, which over time became the center to which all Phoenician colony cities were subordinate. Naturally, the title of the best navigators at that time was identical to the title of the best merchants.

What did the Phoenicians trade?

The Phoenicians sold in other countries what their country was rich in: primarily red fabrics (the Phoenicians learned to extract red dye from shellfish thrown ashore by a storm), transparent glass produced by Phoenician artisans, wood from Lebanese cedars, grape wine and olive oil. oil.

The Phoenician sailors also did not return home empty-handed: they bought grain and sheets of papyrus in Egypt, and silver and copper in Spain.

Also, the main product of the Phoenicians were slaves, whom they bought in other countries and sold at home so that they could build new ships. Also, slaves shackled were used by Phoenician sailors for rowing.

Sometimes Phoenician sailors did not hesitate to commit robbery: as soon as an opportunity presented itself, they captured other people’s ships and plundered small port cities.

Driven from the sea by the Greeks

However, as a result of internal strife and a significant shortage of material for the construction of new ships, the Phoenicians were ousted from the trade and maritime business by the Greeks, who also learned to build stronger and more advanced ships.